LIBRARY, 

LOS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 


RIVERSIDE  TEXTBOOKS 
IN   EDUCATION 

EDITED   BY  ELLWOOD   P.  CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR   OF   EDUCATION 
LELAND   STANFORD   JUNIOR    UNIVERSITY 


DIVISION  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

UNDER  THE  EDITORIAL  DIRECTION 

OF  ALEXANDER  INGLIS 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR   OF    EDUCATION 
HARVARD    UNIVERSITY 


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THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

IN  THE 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


BY 

GILBERT  H.  TRAFTON 

INSTRUCTOR   IN   SCIENCE  AT   THE   STATE   NORMAL 
SCHOOL,   MANKATO,   MINN. 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 


3Z  a 


COPYRIGHT,    1918,   BY   GILBERT  H.  TRAFTON 
ALL   RIGHTS   RESERVED 


CAMBRIDGE  •  MASSACHUSETTS 
U   .    S    .   A 


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<*>£,! 
EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

^  $      THAT  we  as  a  nation  shall  need  to  pay  greater  attention 

\^    '   to  instruction  in  science  after  the  Great  War  than  we  did 

1     ,    before  it,  now  seems  certain.  The  call  for  men  trained  along 

scientific  lines  for  work  in  the  fields  and  in  the  shops  will 

\  inevitably  be  more  insistent  than  any  we  have  previously 

L..    "t?  known.    Research,  too,  along  scientific  lines  seems  certain 

^     to  be  cared  for  in  a  new  way  and  to  be  greatly  extended 

f\      in  scope.    Our  leaders  now  see  clearly  that  if  this  nation 

<js      is  to  hold  its  proper  place  in  the  life  of  the  world  it  must 

become,  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  ever  before,  a  sci- 

v       entific  nation. 

^         To  become  a  scientific  nation,  however,  just  as  to  become 
TV     an  artistic,  or  a  literary,  or  a  moral,  or  a  practical,  or  an 
^    economical  nation,  demands  that  the  masses  be  trained  in 
the  elements  of  these  things,  for  from  the  many  the  great 
<fl    leaders  must  be  drawn.  This  involves  not  only  good  instruc- 
tion in  the  universities  and  secondary  schools  for  those 
possessing  special  aptitudes,  but  general  instruction  in  the 
elementary  schools  that  the  many  may  have  any  latent 
possibilities  awakened,  and  may  also  be  brought  into  sym- 
pathetic appreciation  with  the  new  turn  it  is  desired  that 
our  national  life  should  take. 

Science  instruction,  or  the  awakening  during  childhood 
of  an  intelligent  interest  in  the  world  of  nature  which  lies 
all  about  us,  has  an  important  educational  as  well  as  a 
practical  value.  To  become  trained  to  observe  plant  and 
animal  life  and  the  phenomena  of  the  universe  accurately 
and  appreciatively  is  a  great  educational  asset.  How  to  give 
such  instruction  to  children  has  long  been  one  of  the  per- 


vi  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

plexing  problems  faced  by  those  charged  with  the  responsi- 
bilities of  school  administration.  One  of  the  chief  difficul- 
ties met  with,  especially  in  rural  and  village  schools,  has 
been  that  the  teachers  themselves,  untrained  along  scien- 
tific lines,  have  not  known  what  to  do,  how  to  do  it,  or 
where  to  get  materials.  The  abundance  of  possibilities  for 
instruction  in  scientific  observation,  the  ease  with  which 
simple  scientific  experiments  may  be  performed  in  the 
classroom,  and  the  constant  application  of  scientific  truths 
to  the  daily  life  of  all  have  been  lost  sight  of  in  the  feeling 
that  only  the  most  important  things  should  be  taught  and 
that  expensive  apparatus  and  equipment  are  necessary  to 
teach  them. 

The  author  of  the  present  volume  in  this  series  of  text- 
books has  tried,  out  of  his  long  experience  as  a  teacher  of 
elementary  science  to  children  and  to  prospective  teachers 
of  children,  to  construct  a  simple  and  helpful  volume  for 
the  teacher  who  is  called  upon  to  teach  elementary  science 
lessons,  and  yet  has  neither  scientific  training  nor  apparatus 
for  the  work.  He  has  selected  and  graded  the  easiest  and 
most  interesting  things  to  do  in  each  of  the  main  fields  of 
science,  has  prefaced  this  by  a  brief  discussion  as  to  aims 
and  methods,  and  has  then  supplemented  it  all  by  a  de- 
tailed outline  of  what  may  be  done,  by  years  and  by  grades, 
by  a  teacher  working  alone  and  thrown  upon  her  own 
resources.  The  volume  should  prove  helpful  to  all  teachers 
who  are  anxious  to  impart  such  instruction  to  their  children, 
yet  who  need  a  suggestive  guide  which  will  show  them  the 
many  possibilities  lying  within  easy  reach.  That  the  work 
suggested  and  outlined  has  been  carefully  tested  by  the 
author,  with  children  under  actual  school  conditions,  adds 
much  to  the  value  of  the  outlines  and  suggestions  here 
presented. 

ELLWOOD  P.  CTJBBERLEY 


PREFACE 

THE  part  that  science  plays  in  modern  life  is  so  vital  that 
science  teaching  must  inevitably  have  an  important  place 
in  the  school  curriculum.  There  has  been  some  confusion 
regarding  the  term  to  be  used  to  cover  the  work  in  science 
in  the  elementary  school.  "Nature-study"  has  been  the 
word  in  most  common  usage.  But  there  is  considerable 
misunderstanding  as  to  what  is  included  under  this  term. 
In  recent  years  it  has  been  used  in  an  ever-broadening  sense 
till  now  the  word  is  used  by  many  educators  to  include  all 
phases  of  science  adapted  to  the  elementary  school.  But 
among  people  in  general  the  common  notion  still  prevails 
that  nature-study  includes  only  the  study  of  wild  plants 
and  animals.  So  that,  considering  all  sides  of  the  matter,  it 
has  seemed  better  to  the  author  to  adopt  the  word  "  science  " 
instead  of  nature-study,  as  tending  to  involve  less  mis- 
understanding and  as  helping  to  establish  an  appropriate 
and  standard  term. 

The  modifying  words,  "elementary,"  or  "introduction 
to,"  seem  superfluous.  As  we  have  history  and  English  in 
the  grades,  so  we  have  science;  and  it  is  just  as  unnecessary 
to  speak  of  elementary  science,  or  introduction  to  science, 
as  it  is  to  speak  of  elementary  history  or  introduction  to 
English.  It  is  presupposed  that  any  subject  taught  in  the 
elementary  school  is  to  be  adapted  to  the  needs  and  capa- 
bilities of  the  children. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  nature-study  and 
science  are  not  different  subjects,  but  that  they  are  two 
terms  variously  used  to  cover  the  same  subject-matter. 

Three  possibilities  have  presented  themselves  to  the  au- 


viii  PREFACE 

thor:  first,  to  devote  the  entire  space  to  subject-matter 
alone;  second,  to  devote  the  entire  space  to  the  teaching 
side  alone;  and  third,  to  cover  both  fields.  The  last  possi- 
bility seems  out  of  the  question  because  both  phases  can- 
not be  adequately  treated  within  the  limits  of  a  single  text- 
book usually  set  by  publishers.  The  first  possibility  was 
rejected  because  so  many  good  books  have  appeared  cover- 
ing nature  topics.  The  author  has  accepted  the  second 
possibility  as  offering  the  greatest  need  at  the  present  time 
and  has  devoted  the  entire  book  to  methods  of  teaching 
science. 

The  author  has  attempted  to  give  a  general  view  of  the 
principles  involved  in  teaching  science,  and  has  suggested 
the  organization  of  a  number  of  topics,  leaving  the  details 
to  be  worked  out  by  the  teacher,  either  from  other  books 
or  from  her  own  experiences. 

Special  thanks  are  due  Miss  Helen  M.  Reynolds,  Principal 
of  the  Primary  Department  of  the  Mankato  Training  School, 
for  help  in  preparing  the  outline  for  the  primary  grades. 

GILBERT  H.  TRAFTON 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 
THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  SCIENCE  INSTRUCTION 

I.  THE  CONTENT  AND  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE    .      .      .      .  S 

II.  AIMS  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING 10 

III.  MATERIALS  AND  CORRELATION 17 

IV.  MOTIVATION  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING        ....  26 
V.  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  SCIENCE 36 

PART  H 
BIOLOGICAL  SCIENCE 

VI.  TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  BIRDS 49 

VII.  TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  INSECTS      .      .      .      .69 
VIII.  PETS   AND   DOMESTICATED   ANIMALS    (for   Primary 

Grades) 82 

IX.  LESSONS  ON  TREES 88 

X.  LESSONS  WITH  FLOWERS 99 

XI.  SEED-DISPERSAL  AND  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS  .      .      .  105 

PART  m 
AGRICULTURAL  SCIENCE 

XII.  GARDENING 113 

XIII.  LESSONS  WITH  WEEDS .  135 


x  CONTENTS 

PART  IV 
HYGIENE 

XIV.  PRINCIPLES  UNDERLYING  THE  TEACHING  OF  HYGIENE  143 
XV.  TEACHING  HYGIENE  THROUGH  EXPERIMENTS       .      .159 

PART  V 
PHYSICAL  SCIENCE 

XVI.  PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 169 

XVH.  WEATHER  AND  SKY  STUDIES 185 

PART  VI 
OUTLINE  OF  SCIENCE  INSTRUCTION 

XVIII.  BASIS  FOR  ORGANIZATION  OF  OUTLINE  OF  SCIENCE  .  193 
XIX.    DETAILED  OUTLINE  OF  SCIENCE  BY  TOPICS  AND  PROB- 
LEMS, ARRANGED  ACCORDING  TO  GRADES  AND  SEA- 
SONS   205 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 283 

INDEX  .  289 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

PART  I 
THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  SCIENCE  INSTRUCTION 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  CONTENT  AND  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE 

Phases  of  science.  There  are  four  large  phases  of  science 
in  the  elementary  school:  the  biological,  the  agricultural,  the 
physical,  and  the  hygienic.  Biological  science  is  a  term  which 
the  author  uses  in  a  somewhat  limited  sense  to  include  the 
study  of  wild  plants  and  animals.  Agricultural  science  in- 
cludes some  phases  of  elementary  agriculture,  centering 
chiefly  around  gardening  and  including  some  closely  allied 
topics,  such  as  weeds  and  soils.  Physical  science  includes 
those  phases  of  physics,  chemistry,  and  astronomy  which 
are  adapted  to  the  elementary  schools.  The  hygiene  phase 
of  science  includes  the  teaching  of  the  laws  of  personal 
hygiene  and  public  sanitation. 

Emphasis  on  phases.  The  emphasis  to  be  placed  on  these 
phases  depends  upon  the  age  of  the  child  and  upon  his  en- 
vironment. The  biological  phase  receives  special  attention 
in  the  lower  grades,  diminishing  in  importance  in  the  upper 
grades.  The  agricultural  phase  receives  emphasis  in  the  in- 
termediate and  grammar  grades.  The  physical  phase  has  its 
beginnings  in  the  intermediate  grades  and  receives  special 
attention  in  the  grammar  grades.  Hygiene  receives  some 
attention  through  all  the  grades,  beginning  with  the  primary 
and  increasing  in  importance  in  the  later  grades.  By  this  it 
is  not  meant  to  imply  that  the  health  of  the  child  in  the 
primary  grades  demands  less  attention  than  in  the  later 


4  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

grades;  but  it  means  that  more  time  can  be  given  to  the  for- 
mal teaching  of  hygiene  in  the  upper  grades,  because  the 
age  of  the  children  makes  it  possible  to  give  more  considera- 
tion to  the  laws  of  hygiene  and  to  the  reasons  for  their  ob- 
servance. In  the  lower  grades  little  time  need  be  given  to 
formal  lessons  in  hygiene,  but  emphasis  should  be  placed  on 
the  formation  of  proper  health  habits. 

The  distribution  of  these  various  phases  of  science  accord- 
ing to  grades  is  shown  graphically  in  the  accompanying 
diagram. 

Physical  «Sci'e/xec 
Hygiene 

Agricultural  ^ci'ence. 
Biological  .Science 

7  8 

FIG.  1.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PHASES  OF  SCIENCE  THROUGHOUT  GRADES 

Child's  need  of  science.  It  is  a  fundamental  principle  of 
teaching  that  the  child  should  be  educated  in  terms  of  his 
environment.  His  daily  life  is  to  be  the  guide  for  the  school. 
The  underlying  reason  why  the  child  needs  science  is  because 
science  plays  such  a  vital  part  in  his  every -day  life.  This  is 
a  scientific  age,  when  science  dominates  our  life;  and  it  will 
continue  to  dominate  it  with  ever-increasing  power  in  the 
future.  In  order  that  the  child  may  play  his  part  efficiently 
in  this  scientific  environment,  it  is  necessary  that  he  should 
be  educated  regarding  it  in  the  schools. 

Wild  plants  and  animals  in  the  child's  environment.  The 
child  is  closely  surrounded  on  every  side  with  a  great  variety 
of  plant  and  animal  forms,  and  these  will  continue  to  play  an 
important  part  in  all  his  life.  They  constitute  one  of  the  most 
evident  and  essential  parts  of  his  immediate  environment. 
Some  of  these  forms,  such  as  birds  and  forests,  are  of  great 
value  to  him.  He  should  know  this  so  as  to  protect  them. 


THE  CONTENT  AND  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE          5 

Other  forms,  such  as  weeds  and  some  insects,  are  injurious 
to  him.  He  should  know  this  so  as  to  protect  himself  from 
them.  Some  of  these  plants  and  animals,  such  as  birds,  trees, 
and  flowers,  are  the  chief  factors  that  make  outdoor  life 
attractive.  He  should  know  these  so  that  he  may  better 
appreciate  this  great  source  of  enjoyment. 

Why  we  fail  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  science.  The 
true  value  of  nature  knowledge  in  the  child's  life  is  not  fully 
appreciated  because  most  people  have  had  little  of  this  train- 
ing, and  so  do  not  understand  its  value.  It  is  only  when 
one  has  once  acquired  it,  and  then  imagines  that  he  is  to  be 
deprived  of  it,  that  he  appreciates  its  real  value.  If  we  wish 
to  realize  the  true  value  of  our  railroads,  let  us  imagine  that 
we  are  to  be  deprived  of  their  services  for  a  short  time;  and 
yet  people  existed  for  thousands  of  years  and  made  much 
progress  without  any  railroads  at  all.  So  people  have  gone 
through  our  elementary  schools  without  a  study  of  nature, 
and  hence  do  not  appreciate  how  much  it  would  have  meant 
to  them.  Those  persons  who  have  acquired  this  knowledge 
are  the  ones  best  fitted  to  judge  of  its  value;  and  the  general 
consensus  of  testimony  from  these  persons  is  that  this  ex- 
perience forms  a  vital  part  of  their  life,  from  which  they 
could  ill  afford  to  part.  This  spirit  has  been  well  expressed 
by  a  writer  in  the  Nature-Study  Review  as  follows:  — 

The  love  of  nature  aroused  in  that  schoolroom  under  the  guid- 
ance of  a  teacher  who  was  herself  a  lover  of  the  fields  and  woods, 
has  given  more  pleasure  than  all  else  in  life  combined. 

Agriculture  and  the  child's  life.  The  whole  human  race  is 
indebted  in  the  most  intimate  way  possible  to  agriculture. 
To  the  country  child  it  is  his  father's  vocation  and  he  is  living 
constantly  in  the  midst  of  agricultural  activities  and  remind- 
ers. They  form  a  vital  part  of  his  life.  They  are  also  vital 
to  the  town  child,  only  removed  one  step  farther,  so  that 


6  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

the  connection  is  not  so  plain.  But  even  here  are  seen  the 
elementary  phases  of  agriculture  in  gardening,  and  the  child 
may  himself  engage  in  its  activities  and  derive  profit  and 
pleasure  therefrom. 

Applications  of  modern  science.  For  the  great  majority  of 
those  things  that  contribute  to  the  comforts  and  necessities 
of  the  child's  daily  life,  he  is  indebted  to  modern  means  of 
travel.  The  locomotive,  the  electric  trolley,  and  the  auto- 
mobile are  in  constant  use  in  carrying  the  child  from  place  to 
place.  But  of  even  greater  importance  is  the  part  they  play 
in  bringing  into  his  home  those  things  that  he  uses  daily. 
The  steamboat  and  locomotive  bring  the  child  food  and  cloth- 
ing from  all  parts  of  the  world:  fruits  from  Florida  and  Cali- 
fornia, rice  from  China,  and  silks  from  France.  The  loco- 
motive takes  a  letter  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  and 
brings  back  an  answer,  all  within  a  fortnight. 

The  water  wheel,  the  motor,  and  the  steam  engine  turn 
the  wheels  in  the  factories  where  the  child's  clothing  is 
woven  and  much  of  his  food  is  prepared.  They  run  the 
machines  that  saw  the  lumber  out  of  which  his  home  is  con- 
structed; they  turn  the  lathes  and  run  the  saws  that  make 
the  tables  and  chairs  used  in  his  home.  It  is  difficult  to  look 
anywhere  that  one  does  not  find  evidences  of  the  part  that 
these  machines  play  in  contributing  to  the  child's  every-day 
conveniences. 

The  telegraph  and  the  telephone  make  it  possible  through 
the  newspapers  to  keep  informed  of  what  is  happening  in  all 
parts  of  the  world,  only  a  short  time  after  these  events  occur. 
The  telephone  has  come  to  be  a  daily  necessity  so  closely 
interwoven  with  our  every-day  activities  as  to  be  considered 
almost  as  much  an  essential  in  a  modern  home  as  is  a  watch 
or  clock. 

Many  of  the  child's  chief  pleasures  are  made  possible 
through  the  applications  of  science.  Probably  no  other  one 


THE  CONTENT  AND  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE          7 

thing  furnishes  enjoyment  to  so  many  people,  children  and 
adults  alike,  as  the  moving  pictures.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  fourteen  million  people  visit  the  moving  pictures  every 
day  in  the  United  States.  These  pictures  are  made  possible 
through  improvements  in  photography  and  devices  for  pro- 
jecting pictures  on  the  screen.  The  phonograph  and  the 
great  variety  of  musical  instruments,  such  as  the  piano  and 
the  violin,  are  applications  of  the  physics  of  sound. 

These  examples  that  have  been  given  are  applications  of 
modern  science  in  the  child's  every-day  life,  and  they  con- 
stitute the  chief  reasons  for  the  difference  between  life  to-day 
and  life  a  hundred  years  ago.  These  well-known  illustrations 
have  been  cited  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  science  plays  a 
dominant  part  in  the  child's  life.  Hence,  as  a  natural  result, 
the  study  of  science  should  have  an  important  place  in  the 
school  curriculum. 

Hygiene  and  life.  And  finally,  underlying  everything  else 
and  more  important  than  all  else  combined,  is  the  conserva- 
tion of  the  child's  health.  Teaching  hygiene  should  form  a 
vital  part  of  the  science  work.  The  condition  of  the  body 
underlies  all  that  one  does  in  life.  The  strong,  healthy  body 
gives  the  possibility  of  a  long,  useful,  happy  life.  The  weak 
body  handicaps  one  in  all  walks  in  life  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  extent  of  this  weakness.  Good  health  is  the  most 
precious  thing  that  the  individual  can  possess,  and  the  con- 
servation of  this  health  should  be  the  first  consideration  of 
the  school. 

These  statements  are  self-evident,  and  it  would  seem  al- 
most needless  to  restate  them,  were  it  not  for  the  lamentable 
fact  that  the  laws  of  health  are  seriously  violated  by  the  in- 
dividual, and  the  teaching  of  these  laws  is  almost  criminally 
neglected  by  the  public  schools.  Statistics  show  that  the 
death-rate  in  this  country  for  people  over  forty  years  of  age 
is  increasing.  This  means  that  people  are  failing  to  follow 


8  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

the  laws  of  hygiene  in  their  living.  This  is  largely  a  matter 
of  habits,  and  correct  hygienic  habits  of  living  should  be 
established  during  the  school  age  of  the  child. 

Quotations  regarding  the  place  of  science.  As  evidence  of 
the  need  of  science  teaching  in  our  schools  the  two  following 
quotations  will  suffice  to  indicate  the  opinion  of  educators 
who  look  at  the  school  problem  from  a  general  viewpoint, 
and  not  merely  from  that  of  a  specialist  in  science.  Mr. 
Abraham  Flexner,  hi  his  masterly  and  constructive  paper 
entitled,  A  Modern  School,  writes  regarding  the  science 
work :  — 

The  work  in  science  should  be  the  central  and  dominating 
feature  of  the  school  —  a  departure  that  is  sound  from  the  stand- 
point of  psychology  and  necessary  from  the  standpoint  of  our 
main  purpose.  Children  would  begin  by  getting  acquainted  with 
objects  —  animate  and  inanimate;  they  would  learn  to  know  trees, 
plants,  animals,  hills,  streams,  rocks,  and  to  care  for  animals  and 
plants.  At  the  next  stage,  they  would  follow  the  life  cycles  of 
plants  and  animals,  and  study  the  processes  to  be  observed  in  in- 
animate things.  They  would  also  begin  experimentation  —  physi- 
cal, chemical  and  biological.  In  the  upper  grades,  science  would 
gradually  assume  more  systematic  form.  On  the  basis  of  abundant 
sense-acquired  knowledge  and  with  senses  sharpened  by  constant 
use,  children  would  be  interested  in  problems  and  in  the  theoretic 
basis  on  which  their  solution  depends.  They  will  make  and  under- 
stand a  fireless  cooker,  a  camera,  a  wireless  telegraph;  and  they 
will  ultimately  deal  with  phenomena  and  their  relation  in  the  most 
rigorous  scientific  form. 

The  Cleveland  Survey  volume  on  What  the  Schools  Teach 
and  Might  Teach  says:  — 

No  elaborate  argument  should  be  required  to  convince  the  au- 
thorities in  charge  of  the  school  system  of  a  modern  city  like  Cleve- 
land that  in  this  ultra-scientific  age  the  children  who  do  not  go 
beyond  the  elementary  school  — and  they  constitute  a  majority  — 
need  to  possess  a  Working  knowledge  of  the  rudiments  of  science 
if  they  are  to  make  their  lives  effective.  Considered  from  the  stand- 


THE  CONTENT  AND  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE          9 

point  of  actual  human  needs,  the  present  almost  complete  neglect 
of  elementary  science  is  indefensible. 

Science  has  long  since  passed  beyond  the  stage  of  a  fad; 
and  is  now  a  fundamental  subject  for  the  schools  in  the  same 
sense  that  any  subject  is  considered  fundamental;  that  is,  if 
the  child  has  not  had  instruction  in  that  subject,  he  has  missed 
a  vital  part  of  his  life,  as  a  result  of  which  he  will  be  handi- 
capped in  life;  he  cannot  himself  derive  so  much  pleasure 
from  it,  he  cannot  be  so  successful,  nor  can  he  be  of  so  much 
service  to  others. 


CHAPTER  II 

AIMS  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING 

THE  aims  of  any  subject  should  be  as  broad  as  life  itself, 
in  so  far  as  that  subject  touches  the  various  phases  of  life. 
Science  is  so  closely  related  to  many  vital  aspects  of  human 
life  that  the  aims  of  science  teaching  must  be  broad  and 
comprehensive. 

In  order  to  teach  any  subject  effectively  the  teacher  must 
have  clearly  in  mind  the  purposes  to  be  served  by  that  sub- 
ject. This  gives  definiteness  and  directness  to  her  teaching. 
In  teaching  science  there  is  another  special  reason  why  a 
clear  understanding  of  aims  is  essential  for  the  best  results. 
The  discussion  of  the  previous  chapter  suggests  the  tre- 
mendously broad  field  that  science  covers.  It  is  self-evident 
that  only  a  small  portion  of  this  field  can  be  studied.  How 
shall  the  teacher  know  which  portions  to  cover?  A  clear 
understanding  of  the  purposes  of  teaching  science  will  serve 
as  a  guide  in  selecting  from  this  large  field.  Those  topics  will 
be  selected  which  best  help  to  serve  those  purposes.  Those 
portions  which  help  least,  or  not  at  all,  will  be  omitted. 

Aims  of  education.  In  determining  the  aims  of  teaching 
science  the  fundamental  consideration  is  the  aim  of  educa- 
tion in  general,  as  science  is  simply  one  subject  in  the  school 
curriculum,  and  all  subjects  must  cooperate  to  a  common 
end.  The  purposes  of  education  have  been  stated  in  many 
forms  by  different  writers.  It  is  fairly  inclusive  to  say  that 
education  has  four  large  aims:  the  vocational,  the  a  voca- 
tional, the  social,  and  the  hygienic.  The  vocational  aim  seeks 
to  teach  the  individual  how  to  earn  a  living;  the  avocational 
seeks  to  show  him  how  to  occupy  his  leisure  hours,  so  that  he 


AIMS  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING  11 

may  derive  greater  pleasure  in  living;  the  social  seeks  to 
teach  him  his  duties  to  his  fellows;  and  the  hygienic  seeks  to 
teach  him  how  to  conserve  health.  The  vocational  aim  has 
no  place  in  the  elementary  school,  because  the  immaturity  of 
the  children  does  not  permit  a  vocation  to  be  taught.  This 
leaves,  therefore,  a  threefold  aim  for  the  elementary  school 
—  the  avocational,  the  social,  and  the  hygienic. 

Science,  as  one  of  the  subjects  in  the  school  curriculum, 
can  very  clearly  contribute  its  share  toward  fulfilling  each 
of  these  aims.  So  that  we  may  take  these  same  aims  as  our 
guide  in  teaching  science.  It  is  convenient  to  consider  also 
the  economic  aim,  which  is  not  so  much  an  additional  aim  as 
it  is  a  particular  aspect  of  the  other  aims,  which  it  seems  best 
for  our  purposes  to  treat  separately  under  this  head. 

From  still  another  more  general  standpoint,  education  has 
two  great  functions  to  perform:  to  promote  the  welfare  of 
the  individual  and  that  of  society.  Both  of  these  aspects  are 
included  in  these  aims.  The  aesthetic  or  avocational  aim 
deals  largely  with  individual  welfare,  the  social  aim  with 
social  welfare,  and  the  hygienic  and  economic  aims  with  both 
individual  and  social  well-being. 

Esthetic  or  avocational  aim.  One  important  aim  of  science 
teaching  is  to  furnish  greater  pleasure  in  living.  Enjoyment 
is  an  element  necessary  for  the  most  successful  living.  Every 
one  demands  and  seeks  some  form  of  enjoyment,  and  rightly 
so.  Some  of  the  pleasures  thus  obtained  are  positively  harm- 
ful, some  are  worthless,  and  others  are  helpful.  One  purpose 
of  teaching  science  is  to  furnish  a  helpful  kind  of  enjoyment 
that  shall  make  life  more  worth  living.  The  study  of  na- 
ture furnishes  many  opportunities  to  derive  such  pleasure. 
Through  all  his  life  one  is  surrounded  with  a  wonderful 
variety  of  beautiful  plant  and  animal  forms.  People  are  real- 
izing to-day  as  never  before  the  advantages  of  living  out- 
doors in  contact  with  nature.  The  enjoyment  of  life  is 


12  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

greatly  increased,  oftentimes,  perhaps  unconsciously,  if  one 
knows  the  trees  that  help  so  much  to  make  the  landscapes 
beautiful,  and  can  name  the  flowers  that  adorn  the  roadsides 
and  gardens,  and  sees  and  hears  the  birds  that  gladden  the 
spring-time  by  their  beautiful  colors  and  musical  songs. 

The  raising  of  flowers,  vegetables,  and  fruits  in  the  home 
garden  is  a  source  of  much  pleasure,  as  well  as  having 
economic  and  hygienic  bearings. 

Young  children  derive  great  pleasure  in  keeping  pets,  and 
the  care  of  these  pets  has  the  further  advantage  that  it  helps 
to  develop  in  children  a  sense  of  responsibility. 

The  pleasures  that  nature  furnishes  are  of  almost  univer- 
sal application,  in  that  nearly  every  one  may  derive  some 
enjoyment  therefrom,  if  attention  is  called  in  school  to  these 
possibilities  and  children  are  taught  to  know  the  common 
forms  of  life  that  everywhere  surround  them.  No  special 
training  is  needed  to  enjoy  these  pleasures,  and  they  are  free 
to  all. 

The  relative  stress  to  be  laid  upon  the  various  aims  must 
evidently  depend  upon  the  age  of  the  child.  The  aesthetic 
aim  should  be  the  dominant  one  for  young  children,  and 
should  become  relatively  less  important  for  the  older  chil- 
dren, but  should,  however,  be  kept  in  mind  throughout  all 
the  grades. 

Economic  aim.  Somewhat  in  contrast  with  the  aesthetic 
aim  stands  the  economic  aim,  dealing  with  practical  affairs. 
In  the  great  variety  of  wild  life  are  found  both  beneficial 
and  injurious  forms,  the  former  of  which  should  be  protected, 
and  the  latter  destroyed  or  controlled.  Among  birds  we 
and  that  the  great  majority  are  beneficial.  Among  insects 
ire  found  some  of  man's  worst  enemies.  In  the  vegetable 
garden,  in  the  fruit  garden,  among  the  field  crops,  and  in 
the  household  are  troublesome  and  dangerous  pests  which 
must  be  controlled.  Some  are  even  dangerous  to  human 


AIMS  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING  13 

life.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  insects  that  are  of 
great  value  to  man.  Weeds  are  another  great  pest  wherever 
crops  are  raised.  Every  citizen  needs  to  know  something 
of  the  economic  aspects  of  these  numerous  forms  of  life,  in 
order  that  he  may  guide  his  actions  more  efficiently. 

Gardening  has  an  economic  aspect  worthy  of  careful  con- 
sideration. The  constant  upward  trend  in  the  cost  of  living 
presents  a  serious  problem  for  the  great  majority  of  people. 
A  garden,  even  though  small,  may  be  one  factor  in  helping 
to  reduce  the  cost  of  living,  and  at  the  same  time  it  may 
furnish  the  most  healthful  kinds  of  foods. 

There  are  many  applications  of  physical  science,  such  as 
the  telephone,  the  steam  engine,  and  the  automobile,  which 
play  so  vital  a  part  in  modern  life  that  some  knowledge  of 
their  significance  is  essential  to  an  intelligent  existence  amid 
present-day  surroundings. 

The  economic  ami  may  be  kept  in  mind  to  some  extent 
in  the  intermediate  grades,  and  may  share  with  the  social 
aim  the  dominant  place  in  the  grammar  grades. 

Social  aim.  During  recent  years,  the  social  ami  of  educa- 
tion has  been  strongly  emphasized,  and  properly  so.  Man 
above  all  other  forms  of  creation  is  a  social  being.  As  modern 
improvements  and  increase  in  population  bring  people 
closer  together,  both  potentially  and  actually,  and  make 
them  more  dependent  on  each  other,  the  duties  that  one 
owes  to  his  fellows  become  of  increasing  importance.  Co- 
operation, not  competition,  is  the  watchword  of  our  advance 
to-day  in  all  phases  of  activity  —  political,  religious,  and 
industrial,  as  well  as  educational. 

In  the  teaching  of  science  there  are  opportunities  to  show 
children  how  they  may  best  perform  their  social  duties  and 
cooperate  with  others  to  promote  the  best  welfare  of  all. 
Some  forms  of  wild  life,  such  as  birds  and  forests,  are  of 
great  value  to  the  entire  country,  and  should  be  protected 


14  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

and  preserved.  During  the  years  past  the  true  value  of  birds 
and  forests  has  not  been  appreciated,  and  these  natural 
resources  have  been  squandered  even  to  the  point  of  extinc- 
tion of  some  species,  of  which  the  passenger  pigeon  is  a 
recent  example.  We  may  teach  our  boys  and  girls  that 
preservation  of  birds  and  forests  is  one  of  the  duties  of 
citizenship,  and  that  for  this  cooperation  is  necessary. 

And  most  important  of  all  is  the  protection  of  the  health 
of  the  community.  For  this  cooperation  is  absolutely  es- 
sential. As  people  are  more  and  more  gathering  in  towns 
and  cities  the  necessity  of  wrorking  together  becomes  in- 
creasingly important.  When  a  man  lived  on  a  farm  far  re- 
moved from  neighbors  many  of  his  health  problems  were 
entirely  personal,  and  concerned  himself  and  family  alone. 
But  with  the  grouping  of  people  in  towns  in  close  proximity 
many  health  problems  must  be  solved  in  common,  such  as 
keeping  the  water  supply  pure,  controlling  contagious  dis- 
eases, and  disposing  of  garbage  and  sewage. 

Thousands  of  people  are  killed  every  year  through  the 
agency  of  the  fly  and  the  mosquito  in  carrying  diseases,  and 
yet  practically  all  of  these  deaths  are  needless,  because  by 
proper  cooperation  the  citizens  of  a  town  can  control  these 
pests.  The  work  in  science  may  well  be  a  means  through 
which  such  an  interest  will  be  aroused  in  both  children  and 
parents,  that  efforts  will  be  made  which  will  lead  to  the  con- 
trol of  these  insects. 

The  wide  extension  of  modern  applications  of  science  has 
done  much  to  draw  people  of  distant  States  together  and  to 
produce  a  feeling  of  unity  and  a  greater  toleration  for  others' 
viewpoints.  This  has  helped  to  make  a  people  more  homo- 
geneous in  ideals  and  to  produce  a  feeling  of  oneness  that 
underlies  a  true  national  spirit. 

The  social  aim  may  find  its  beginnings  in  the  intermediate 
grades  as  soon  as  the  age  of  the  children  enables  them  to 


AIMS  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING  15 

appreciate  some  of  its  phases,  and  should  be  one  of  the 
dominant  aims  of  the  grammar  grades. 

Hygienic  aim.  The  need  of  a  healthy  body  as  the  basis  of 
all  activities  of  life  is  self-evident,  as  is  also  the  need  of  teach- 
ing boys  and  girls  how  to  keep  their  bodies  healthy.  But, 
unfortunately,  the  practical  working-out  of  the  teaching  of 
physiology  in  the  schools  seems  to  have  been  unsuccessful. 
It  is  difficult  to  get  children  interested  in  health  for  health's 
sake,  but  we  may  connect  hygiene  with  other  science  topics 
and  activities  in  which  the  child  is  interested.  In  connection 
with  gardening  may  be  taken  up  the  question  of  exercise, 
and  the  study  of  fruits  and  vegetables  as  foods.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  methods  of  heating  the  home  there  naturally 
arises  the  question  of  ventilation.  The  study  of  the  fly  brings 
up  the  subject  of  bacteria  in  relation  to  disease.  And  with 
other  topics  of  hygiene  it  is  believed  that  better  results  will 
follow  if  they  are  arranged  as  an  organic  part  of  the  science 
course.  The  work  in  hygiene  has  been  so  incorporated  in  the 
outline  of  science  given  in  chapter  XIX. 

The  hygienic  aim  should  be  kept  in  mind  throughout  all 
the  grades,  beginning  with  the  youngest  children  and  in- 
creasing in  importance  as  the  advancing  age  of  the  children 
enables  them  better  to  understand  the  need  and  laws  of 
hygienic  living. 

Abandoned  disciplinary  theory.  In  the  years  past  the  dis- 
ciplinary aim  of  education  has  been  dominant,  in  accord- 
ance with  which  the  chief  aim  of  education  was  to  discipline 
the  various  powers  of  the  mind,  such  as  the  powers  of  ob- 
servation, reasoning,  and  memory  in  the  belief  that  after 
these  had  been  trained  in  school  the  powers  thus  acquired 
could  be  turned  to  use  in  any  walk  of  life.  In  connection 
with  science  it  was  common  to  emphasize  the  value  of  train- 
ing the  power  of  observation.  The  researches  of  modern 
psychology  compel  the  abandonment  of  this  theory  of  gen- 


16  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

eral  discipline  and  the  substitution  of  the  theory  of  specific 
discipline,  in  accordance  with  which  training  that  is  received 
in  school  becomes  useful  elsewhere  only  when  applied  to  the 
same  or  similar  conditions.  It  would  be  beyond  the  purpose 
of  this  book  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  theory  of  formal 
discipline;  it  will  suffice  merely  to  state  that  the  results  of 
numerous  experiments  have  led  practically  every  educator 
and  psychologist  in  the  country  to  abandon  the  theory  of 
formal  discipline,  which  has  dominated  our  schools  for  so 
many  years,  and  from  whose  shackles,  unfortunately,  many 
of  the  school  subjects  have  not  yet  freed  themselves. 

In  accordance  with  the  modern  interpretation  the  child 
should  be  taught  in  science  to  observe  and  reason  about 
those  things  in  school  which  it  is  desirable  for  him  to  observe 
and  reason  about  in  actual  life.  The  use  of  the  power  of 
observation  is  a  method  by  which  science  is  taught,  but  the 
training  of  this  power  should  not  be  the  aim.  It  is  a  means, 
and  not  an  end. 

Another  serious  objection  to  the  disciplinary  theory  is  the 
fact  that  it  is  non-selective  in  its  functioning.  An  aim  should 
serve  as  a  guide-post  to  the  teacher,  pointing  out  the  things 
to  be  taught.  The  disciplinary  aim  does  not  serve  this 
function,  for  the  study  of  any  one  form  of  life  will  serve  the 
purpose  of  developing  the  power  of  observation  as  well  as 
the  study  of  any  other  related  form. 

.•al  Aim 
Hygienic  Aim 
Economic  Aim 


ic  A'im 

7         5    * 

FIG.  2.   RELATIVE  EMPHASIS  ON  AIMS  OF  SCIENCE  IN  DIFFERENT  GRADES 

The  above  diagram  will  suggest  the  relative  stress  to  be 
placed  on  the  various  aims  of  science  in  the  different  grades. 
The  distance  of  the  curve  above  the  base  line  represents  the 
relative  importance  of  that  aim. 


CHAPTER  III 

MATERIALS  AND  CORRELATION 

Materials 

ONE  of  the  features  that  characterizes  science  and  makes  it 
ivorth  while  is  the  fact  that  it  deals  largely  with  the  concrete 
things  in  the  child's  environment.  In  order  that  the  child 
may  derive  the  most  benefit  from  his  study,  it  is  necessary 
that  he  should  have  actual  concrete  materials  to  use  hi  his 
lessons.  The  procuring  of  materials  for  science  lessons,  then, 
is  something  for  which  the  teacher  should  make  definite 
plans.  Frequently  the  assistance  of  the  children  may  be 
sought  in  securing  material,  and  this  forms  a  valuable  ex- 
perience for  the  children. 

Types  of  materials.  The  great  mass  of  materials  available 
may  be  classified  into  the  following  groups:  (1)  living  things 
in  their  natural  environment;  (2)  living  things  in  the  school- 
room; (3)  preserved  material;  (4)  pictures;  (5)  apparatus  for 
demonstration  and  experiments. 

(i)  Living  material  in  natural  environment.  The  best  kind 
of  material  for  the  study  of  plants  and  animals  is  the  living 
object  in  its  natural  environment,  because  this  is  the  way  it 
is  actually  seen  in  the  life  of  the  child.  This  study  of  material 
outdoors  may  be  carried  on  in  two  ways:  by  means  of  indi- 
vidual studies  made  by  the  children  under  the  suggestions 
of  the  teacher,  and  by  means  of  field  trips  hi  which  the 
teacher  accompanies  a  group  of  children.  Both  of  these 
methods  are  desirable. 

Individual  observations  by  children.  The  first  method  of 
,tudying  life  in  its  natural  environment,  by  encouraging  and 
expecting  the  children  to  make  studies  by  themselves,  is 


18  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENC 


one  of  the  most  valuable  lines  of  work  that  ca 
of  the  applications  which  it  is  desirable  that 
make  throughout  his  life  is  the  observation 
around  him;  and  the  more  closely  we  can  ! 
school  the  application  desired  in  life,  the 
probability  that  this  application  will  be  ma 


be  done.  One 
the  child  shall 
f  the  wild  life 
>proximate  in 
greater  is  the 
e.  In  connec- 


tion with  each  lesson  the  teacher  may  suggest  some  ques- 
tions that  the  child  may  answer  from  outdoor  studies  of  the 
topic  of  the  lesson.  For  the  older  children  these  questions 
may  be  written  on  the  board.  At  the  next  lesson  an  oppor- 
tunity should  be  given  for  the  children  to  make  reports  on 
what  they  have  observed.  As  the  children  become  more 
observant  and  self-reliant,  fewer  details  will  need  to  be  given, 
and  finally  they  may  be  thrown  on  their  own  responsibility 
regarding  the  points  to  be  studied.  One  purpose  of  a  lesson 
should  be  to  arouse  enough  interest  so  that  the  children  will 
want  to  make  further  studies  of  the  topic  under  discussion. 
At  first  there  will  be  many  children  who  will  not  make  these 
studies,  but  the  number  who  do  make  them  can  be  greatly 
increased  by  expecting  the  children  to  do  this,  the  same  as 
any  home  work,  and  by  giving  frequent  opportunities  for 
them  to  report  on  their  observations. 

This  work  will  be  greatly  stimulated  by  keeping  spring 
calendars  of  birds  and  flowers,  in  which  a  record  is  kept  of 
the  name  of  the  bird  or  flower  seen,  the  date  when  first  seen, 
and  the  name  of  the  child  first  reporting  it.  This  record  may 
be  kept  either  on  the  blackboard  or  on  a  large  piece  of  card- 
board. Similar  calendars  may  be  kept  of  the  leafing  and 
flowering  of  trees  in  the  spring  and  of  the  coloring  and  fall 
of  the  leaves  in  the  autumn. 

Field  trips.  The  final  desired  end  is  that  the  child  shall 
be  observant  of  nature  when  by  himself,  and  one  of  the 
chief  values  of  the  formal  field  trip  with  the  teacher  is  that 
these  trips  may  lead  to  this  end.  The  teacher  may  arouse 


MATERIALS  AND  CORRELATION  19 

an  interest  in  the  child  and  she  may  suggest  what  to  study 
and  how  to  observe.  Thus  the  child  will  be  led  to  individual 
observations. 

This  kind  of  work  should  be  strongly  emphasized  wher- 
ever possible.  The  conditions  in  many  of  our  schools  are 
such  that  it  is  not  practicable  to  take  many  field  trips. 
But  plans  can  often  be  made  to  take  at  least  one  trip  a 
term.  If  a  class  is  too  large  to  be  taken  altogether,  fre- 
quently arrangements  can  be  made  to  take  half  of  the  class 
at  a  time  and  leave  the  other  half  in  charge  of  the  prin- 
cipal. This  half  may  then  be  taken  on  a  trip  at  some  later 
time. 

Careful  preparation  should  be  made  by  the  teacher  for 
this  trip.  She  should  go  over  the  ground  a  day  or  two  before 
the  trip  is  to  be  taken  and  see  just  what  material  is  available, 
and  decide  definitely  on  what  the  children  are  to  study. 
She  should  make  the  purpose  of  the  trip  very  clear  to  the 
children  before  starting,  so  that  they  may  have  a  definite 
aim  to  guide  them.  There  are  so  many  distracting  things 
that  it  is  specially  important  that  they  should  start  out  with 
this  definite  purpose.  After  certain  outdoor  studies  have 
been  made  it  may  be  wise  in  some  cases  to  gather  material, 
when  feasible,  and  take  it  back  to  the  schoolroom,  where 
it  may  be  studied  more  carefully  with  fewer  things  to  dis- 
tract the  attention  of  the  children. 

(2)  Living  material  in  the  schoolroom.  In  some  ways  the 
most  practical  kind  of  material  is  the  living  specimen  kept 
in  the  schoolroom.  Here  the  environment  is  missing,  but 
life  is  still  left.  There  is  a  great  abundance  of  material 
available  here.  Various  kinds  of  pets,  including  canaries, 
may  be  kept  in  the  schoolroom  for  a  short  time.  A  great 
many  insects,  such  as  crickets,  grasshoppers,  caterpillars, 
and  many  others  may  be  kept  in  glass  jars  covered  with 
mosquito  netting;  mosquito  wigglers  may  be  kept  in  turn- 


20  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

biers;  fishes,  tadpoles,  snails,  toad's  eggs,  and  many  kinds 
of  water  insects  may  be  kept  in  glass  jars  filled  with  water. 
Nearly  all  kinds  of  plants  may  be  kept  in  the  schoolroom, 
such  as  flowers,  leaves  of  trees,  ferns,  and  mushrooms. 
Experiments  may  be  performed  with  seeds  and  seedlings; 
and  house  plants,  such  as  ferns,  geraniums,  and  bulbs,  can 
be  kept  permanently  in  the  room. 

(3)  Preserved  specimens.     In  the  group  of  preserved 
specimens  life  and  environment  are  both  missing  and  only 
the  form  is  left,  but  for  some  topics  this  kind  of  material 
serves  the  purpose  well.  Children  can  be  set  to  work  making 
collections,  and  thus  while  looking  for  materials  they  will 
find  objects  in  their  natural  environment.    Some  of  these 
materials  may  be  collected  and  kept  in  the  schoolroom 
without  any  preparation  to  preserve  them;  such  as  bird's 
nests,  galls,  cocoons,  wasp's  nests,  tree  fruits,  specimens  of 
woods,  woody  mushrooms,  weed  seeds,  ears  of  corn,  plants 
of  wheat,  and  other  cereal  crops.    Some  materials,  such  as 
flowers,  ferns,  weeds,  leaves  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  vines, 
may  be  preserved  by  pressing  them  between  the  leaves  of 
books  or  between  the  folds  of  newspapers,  with  weights 
placed  upon  them.    Insects  may  be  kept  in  glass  mounts 
made  of  old  negatives.   The  older  boys,  in  connection  with 
the  work  in  manual  training,  may  make  a  simple  museum 
case  in  which  these  materials  may  be  kept. 

(4)  Pictures.  In  the  picture  not  only  are  the  environment 
and  life  gone,  but  the  thing  itself  as  well,  and  we  are  dealing 
with  only  a  representation  of  the  real  thing.    But  pictures 
have  their  place,  and  for  some  objects  form  very  desirable 
material,  as  in  the  case  of  birds.  These  show  the  colors  well, 
and  many  suggest  something  of  the  environment. 

(5)  Apparatus  for  demonstration  and  experiments.    For 
much  of  the  work  in  physical  science,  and  for  some  work 
in  hygiene  and  with  plants,  simple  apparatus  will  be  needed 


MATERIALS  AND  CORRELATION  21 

for  demonstrations  and  experiments.  Suggestions  are  given 
in  the  chapters  dealing  with  these  topics. 

The  topic  to  be  studied  should  be  so  chosen  according  to 
season  that  the  illustrative  material  may  be  easily  available. 
In  many  cases  the  children  will  help  the  teacher  secure  the 
material,  but  the  teacher  herself  must  take  the  final  respon- 
sibility to  see  that  the  material  is  actually  present  when 
needed. 

Amount  of  material.  The  amount  of  duplicate  material 
needed  for  a  lesson  varies  according  to  the  topic.  In  some 
cases  each  child  may  be  provided  with  a  specimen  for  study, 
as  with  weeds,  leaves,  seeds,  and  many  flowers.  This  makes 
an  ideal  situation,  because  each  child  has  opportunity  to 
make  his  own  individual  studies  without  depending  on  any 
one  else.  In  many  cases  it  is  not  feasible  to  procure  material 
for  each  child.  In  some  of  these  cases  the  teacher  may  plan 
to  secure  a  specimen  for  each  row  of  pupils.  In  still  other 
cases  only  one  specimen  may  be  available  for  the  whole 
room. 

In  the  experimental  work  done  in  physical  science  one 
set  of  apparatus  will  be  sufficient.  The  experiment  may  be 
performed  by  the  teacher  for  the  entire  class,  oftentimes 
with  the  assistance  of  some  of  the  pupils. 

How  to  use  material.  In  using  material  one  important 
principle  should  be  kept  in  mind,  that  enough  time  should 
be  taken  to  allow  each  child  to  study  the  material.  Recent 
experiments  have  shown  that  the  time  factor  is  an  impor- 
tant element  in  observation;  that  one  of  the  chief  ways  to 
insure  accurate  observation  is  to  allow  plenty  of  time  for 
the  object  to  be  studied.  When  only  one  specimen  is  avail- 
able this  thought  should  be  especially  kept  in  mind,  because 
when  the  teacher  simply  holds  up  the  material  in  the  front 
of  the  room,  only  the  few  children  near  the  teacher  have  a 
satisfactory  opportunity  to  study  the  specimen,  while  those 


22  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

in  the  rear  of  the  room  may  get  very  little  from  the  lesson. 
The  material  should  be  passed  around  by  the  teacher  or 
some  child,  or  else  groups  of  children  may  come  up  in  turn 
and  study  the  specimen.  This  will  take  more  time,  but  it  is 
necessary  if  all  the  children  are  to  derive  the  full  value  of  the 
lesson.  When  only  one  specimen  is  available  an  excellent 
way  to  have  it  studied  by  all  is  to  leave  it  on  the  table  or 
window  sill  for  several  days,  and  suggest  that  the  children 
study  it  at  odd  moments  during  the  day. 

If  a  specimen  is  provided  for  each  row  it  may  be  studied 
by  each  child  individually  and  handed  back  from  seat  to 
seat,  or  the  children  in  each  row  may  study  it  as  a  group. 

One  point  to  consider  in  the  use  of  material  by  the  chil- 
dren is  the  fact  that  when  children  handle  material  they 
are  using  another  sense,  that  of  touch  as  well  as  that  of 
sight,  and  hence  they  learn  more  quickly  than  they  would 
by  sight  alone  because  they  are  acquiring  knowledge  through 
two  avenues. 

Relation  of  science  to  other  subjects 

The  nearer  our  schoolroom  procedure  can  approach  life 
conditions,  the  more  effective  will  our  teaching  be,  as  the 
greater  are  the  probabilities  that  the  child  will  make  use  of 
that  which  he  learns  in  school.  Correlation  is  the  natural 
and  common  procedure  in  ordinary  life.  The  unit  here  is 
not  the  subject-matter  involved,  but  the  activity  in  which 
the  person  is  engaged,  and  our  ordinary  activities  involve 
a  great  variety  of  subjects.  Hence,  natural  correlation  is 
a  desirable  thing  to  be  made  an  organic  part  of  teaching. 
Convenience  seems  to  demand  that  the  various  subjects 
should  be  taught  separately,  and  hence  there  is  all  the  more 
need  that  there  should  be  found  some  interest  which  shall 
unite  and  correlate  these  various  subjects. 

Furthermore,  psychology  teaches  that  when  a  topic  is 


MATERIALS  AND  CORRELATION  23 

approached  from  several  standpoints  and  taught  in  its 
relation  to  other  things,  it  becomes  more  surely  a  part  of 
the  child's  experiences  than  if  taught  disconnectedly. 

Science  and  art.  There  are  many  opportunities  for  nat- 
ural correlation  in  teaching  science.  This  is  specially  true  in 
connection  with  art,  literature,  and  language.  Many  sci- 
Tice  topics  permit  of  correlation  with  art.  Much  of  the 
jjiaterial  used  in  the  science  lessons  may  be  reproduced  by 
the  child  by  means  of  free-hand  drawings  with  colored 
crayons  for  younger  children,  and  outline  drawings  and 
paintings  in  water-colors  for  older  children.  For  young 
children  a  large  amount  of  hand  work  is  necessary  through- 
out all  departments  of  school  work,  and  the  drawings  may 
furnish  some  of  this  in  connection  with  the  nature-study 
lessons. 

Science  and  literature.  In  literature  will  be  found  many 
references  to  nature,  and  he  who  would  most  truly  appreci- 
ate literature  needs  to  know  something  of  the  plants  and 
animals  to  which  reference  is  made.  Our  poets  write  often 
of  birds,  flowers,  and  trees;  and  whenever  these  forms  are 
studied  in  the  science  lesson  the  study  of  some  appropriate 
poem  will  add  greatly  to  the  child's  appreciation  of  the 
object  studied.  It  is  also  true  from  the  standpoint  of  liter- 
ature that  the  child's  appreciation  of  the  poem  is  increased 
through  a  study  of  the  forms  to  which  reference  is  made. 

Science  and  geography.  In  home  geography  the  correla- 
tion between  nature-study  and  geography  is  so  close  that 
frequently  the  two  are  taught  together  for  the  first  two  or 
three  grades  under  the  name  of  nature-study.  The  relation 
between  these  subjects  is  also  close  in  the  later  grades, 
geography  is  constantly  dealing  with  science  topics,  thus 
presenting  a  natural  opportunity  for  correlation. 

Other  opportunities  for  correlation.  There  are  also  op- 
portunities for  the  correlation  of  science  with  manual  train- 


24  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

ing  in  making  bird-houses  and  fly-traps  and  in  connection 
with  the  study  of  gardening.  Problems  for  arithmetic  may 
be  found  in  connection  with  the  study  of  birds,  trees,  and 
weeds.  Opportunities  for  correlation  with  language  are  con- 
stantly presenting  themselves.  Reports  by  the  children  ci* 
what  they  have  observed  outdoors  or  what  they  have  don<_ 
in  connection  with  outdoor  activities,  furnish  excellent  op- 
portunities for  teaching  the  correct  use  of  English. 

Methods  of  correlation.  Correlation  may  be  brought 
about  in  several  ways.  If  it  is  desired  to  correlate  science 
and  art  the  following  possibilities  arise:  first,  during  the 
art  period  a  brief  study  from  the  science  standpoint  may 
be  made  of  the  material  being  drawn;  second,  during  the 
science  period  drawings  may  be  made  of  the  materials  being 
studied;  and  third,  the  same  topic  may  be  studied  in  both 
the  science  and  art  periods  —  in  one  from  the  science  stand- 
point, in  the  other  from  the  art  standpoint.  The  method 
to  be  used  will  depend  upon  the  conditions  existing  in  the 
school.  The  last  arrangement  seems  from  some  standpoints 
the  ideal  one,  but  under  present  conditions  it  is  difficult  to 
bring  it  about  in  the  graded  schools.  If  both  subjects  to  be 
correlated  are  taught  the  methods  suggested  under  one  and 
two  offer  the  best  opportunity.  If  only  one  of  the  subjects 
is  taught  in  the  school  the  only  possibility  is  to  correlate 
with  the  other  subject  during  the  regular  period  of  the  first 
one.  The  writer  suggests  that  the  teacher  may  occasion- 
ally utilize  a  part  of  the  science  period  for  art  work  or  for 
the  study  of  literature  appropriate  to  the  topic. 

The  chart  on  page  25  may  suggest  some  of  the  possibili- 
ties of  correlation  with  a  few  leading  science  topics. 


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CHAPTER  IV 

MOTIVATION  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING 

ONE  of  the  first  and  most  fundamental  things  to  which 
Ihe  teacher  of  science  should  give  attention  is  proper  moti- 
vation of  the  subject  on  the  part  of  the  child.  Motivation 
involves  three  steps:  first,  a  consideration  of  the  children's 
experiences  so  as  to  make  the  proper  connections;  second, 
a  problem  to  arouse  the  children's  interest  and  to  guide 
them  in  their  work;  and  third,  the  use  of  what  they  have 
learned  as  the  final  outcome  of  what  precedes.  There  has 
been  in  the  past,  and  unfortunately  still  is,  too  much  pur- 
poseless teaching  of  science  and  of  other  subjects  as  well; 
but  it  seems  as  though  the  defect  were  especially  inexcus- 
able in  science,  because  the  subject  touches  the  child's  life 
at  so  many  vital  points.  The  efficiency  which  modern  life  is 
demanding  of  the  schools  must  cause  us  to  substitute  for 
this  aimless,  unguided  study  of  nature  topics  a  vital,  pur- 
poseful study  of  those  things  that  are  worth  while  in  the 
child's  life. 

The  child  and  the  curriculum.  The  first  essential  in  proper 
motivation,  is  that  the  thing  being  done  should  be  worth 
while  from  the  child's  standpoint.  This  brings  us  at  once 
to  the  fundamental  principle  that  the  child  is  the  deter- 
mining factor  in  the  school.  Life  must  be  viewed  through 
the  child's  eyes,  and  the  curriculum  planned  accordingly. 
Not  only  the  method  of  teaching,  but  the  content  of  the 
course  must  find  its  basis  in  the  child's  life.  In  the  centu- 
ries past  both  the  method  and  content  found  their  basis  in 
the  life  of  the  adult  and  not  in  that  of  the  child.  As  a  result 
of  the  psychological  studies  of  the  past  century  the  principle 


MOTIVATION  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING  27 

that  the  method  of  teaching  should  find  its  basis  in  the 
child's  life  has  been  universally  accepted.  The  consequent 
practice  of  this  principle  has  become  fairly  well  established 
in  our  schools. 

The  studies  of  recent  years  have  established  the  principle 
that  the  content  of  the  school  curriculum  should  also  find 
its  basis  in  the  child's  life.  We  are  now  in  the  midst  of  actu- 
ally putting  this  principle  into  practice  in  our  school  pro- 
cedure. 

Fallacies  of  storage  system  of  education.  The  old  con- 
ception of  basing  the  content  of  the  course  on  the  adult 
needs,  —  on  what  the  child  might  need  when  he  becomes 
an  adult,  —  is  based  on  a  number  of  misconceptions  of  the 
value  and  fullness  of  child  life,  and  on  a  misunderstanding 
of  the  laws  of  psychology.  The  old  conception  that  the 
school  should  teach  the  child  what  he  will  need  when  he 
grows  up  has  been  aptly  termed  the  storage  system  of  edu- 
cation. The  idea  back  of  this  is  that  the  child's  mind  may 
be  stored  with  facts  that  will  prove  useful  in  later  life,  and 
that  they  will  be  retained  there  and  can  be  used  whenever 
the  adult  finds  need  for  them.  This  is  based  on  two  falla- 
cies: First  it  assumes  that  knowledge  which  the  child  learns 
can  be  retained  in  mind  a  long  time,  even  when  not  used, 
and  then  applied  in  later  life.  This  assumption  is  false,  be- 
cause experiments  have  shown  that  knowledge  is  soon  lost 
unless  it  is  used.  The  second  fallacy  on  which  the  storage 
system  of  education  rests  is  the  idea  that  child  life  in  itself 
is  barren  and  incomplete,  and  that  it  is  only  in  adult  life 
that  experiences  become  really  worth  while. 

Richness  of  child's  life.  Even  a  very  hasty  glance  at 
child  life  shows  that  it  is  rich  and  full  in  those  experiences 
that  go  to  make  up  life,  and  that  it  is  full  of  opportunities 
to  make  present  use  of  knowledge.  The  bodily  needs  that 
relate  to  health  are  the  same  as  those  for  the  adult.  The 


28  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

same  underlying  principles  of  hygiene  regarding  food,  air, 
and  cleanliness  apply  to  both  alike.  These  laws  of  hygiene 
require  constant  daily  application. 

In  enjoyment  the  child's  life  is  a  full  one.  Play  naturally 
makes  up  a  large  and  vital  element  in  his  life.  He  enjoys 
many  of  the  same  things  as  does  the  adult,  of  which  the 
"movies"  are  a  constant  reminder.  The  child's  enjoyment 
of  physical  bodily  activities  exceeds  that  of  the  adult. 

The  child's  temptations  and  sorrows  are  just  as  real  and 
varied  to  the  child  as  they  will  be  later  in  his  adult  life. 
True,  his  sorrows  are  transient,  but  nevertheless  real.  Per- 
haps hi  some  ways  the  child  is  exposed  to  a  greater  variety 
of  temptations  than  the  adult,  because  the  adult  has  most 
of  his  habits  of  life  well  established,  and  things  which  in 
earlier  years  were  a  constant  temptation  while  habits  were 
being  formed,  have  now  ceased  to  be  temptations  because 
established  habits  of  right  conduct  have  eliminated  them. 

Children's  experiences  abound  in  social  life  and  its  corre- 
sponding duties.  The  child's  play  life  is  largely  a  social  life. 
To  even  a  larger  extent  than  the  adult,  children  are  together 
in  their  various  activities.  And  in  these  gatherings  there 
arise  the  same  problems  that  arise  in  adult  gatherings: 
leadership,  duties  to  each  other,  the  establishment  of  a  ba- 
sis on  which  intercourse  is  possible,  the  punishment  of  those 
who  offend  these  requirements,  and  so  on  through  a  long 
list  of  social  activities. 

And  so  from  morning  till  night  the  child's  day  is  full  of 
its  activities  and  needs,  quite  as  varied  as  those  of  the  adult, 
and  offering  equal  opportunities  for  the  application  of  useful 
knowledge.  The  school  should  seek  to  give  the  child  those 
things  that  these  present  activities  demand. 

Relation  of  present  and  future  needs.  In  basing  the  con- 
tent of  the  school  subjects  on  the  child's  possible  future 
needs  as  an  adult,  we  find  the  serious  difficulty  that  no  one 


MOTIVATION  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING  29 

knows  what  a  person  will  be  doing  and  where  he  will  be  in 
the  future,  and,  as  a  result,  no  specific  individual  education 
is  possible,  but  only  a  vague  general  education.  And  even 
when  one  can  see  some  things  that  the  adult  will  need,  such 
as  the  ability  to  read,  still  we  must  find  the  basis  for  teach- 
ing reading  in  the  use  that  the  child  makes  of  it  in  his  present 
life.  And  if  one  can  foresee  what  the  child  will  need  later 
in  life,  but  does  not  need  and  cannot  use  in  his  present,  it 
will  be  useless  to  teach  these  things  to  the  child,  because 
they  will  soon  be  forgotten  unless  the  child  finds  some  im- 
mediate use  for  them.  And,  furthermore,  many  of  the 
children  will  never  live  to  reach  adulthood,  so  that  if  we  are 
thinking  only  or  chiefly  of  the  future,  in  these  cases  the  en- 
ergy and  time  spent  in  the  education  of  the  child  have  been 
wasted  from  the  standpoint  of  both  the  child  and  the  State. 

The  school  should  so  educate  the  child  as  to  give  him  the 
things  he  needs  most  up  to  any  given  moment.  At  every 
stage  of  the  child's  development  the  educational  system 
should  be  complete  and  symmetrical  up  to  that  point,  ac- 
cording to  the  needs  of  the  child.  And  as  the  child  develops 
the  educational  system  should  adapt  itself  accordingly  to 
the  changing  needs  of  the  child.  Each  need  should  be  met 
when  it  arises.  It  is  not  a  proper  figure  to  use  to  say  that 
in  the  early  years  of  the  school  course  the  foundation  of 
the  building  is  laid,  and  that,  as  the  child  grows  older,  the 
other  parts  are  added  till  the  building  is  complete  when 
the  child  becomes  an  adult.  Rather  should  we  say  that  at 
each  and  every  stage  of  the  school  course  we  have  built  a 
complete  structure,  and  that  in  later  years  the  building 
simply  grows  larger. 

Stressing  of  the  present  in  education.  This  stressing  of 
the  present  life  of  the  child  does  not  mean  the  neglect  of 
the  future,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  represents  the  only 
effective  means  of  preparing  for  the  future.  The  fulfillment 


SO  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

of  the  child's  present  needs  is  the  best  possible  preparation 
for  whatever  later  needs  may  arise.  It  is  like  the  young 
apple  tree.  The  first  year  it  is  set  out  it  must  be  given  the 
care  that  it  demands  for  that  particular  year  and  season. 
Then  the  second  year  the  care  needed  for  that  season  must 
be  given,  and  so  on  until  finally  the  tree  reaches  maturity 
and  bears  fruit. 

This  principle  is  recognized  in  the  care  of  the  child's 
physical  needs.  In  order  that  the  child  may  be  a  strong, 
healthy  adult,  we  take  those  steps  necessary  to  keep  him 
healthy  as  a  child.  Likewise  in  the  moral  field,  in  order  to 
develop  a  man  with  a  proper  perspective  of  life  who  shall 
perform  his  duties  toward  his  fellows,  the  child  is  taught 
year  by  year  the  moral  precepts  that  he  needs  for  that  par- 
ticular age.  And  so  in  the  mental  life  of  the  child  the  same 
principle  holds,  in  order  to  develop  a  man  who  can  make  the 
best  use  of  his  mind  in  the  part  that  he  is  to  play  in  life, 
we  must  help  the  child  in  each  stage  of  his  development  to 
make  the  best  possible  use  of  the  mental  powers  which  he 
possesses  at  that  time. 

Motivation  through  children's  problems.  The  way  to 
secure  motivation  is  to  center  the  school  work  around  the 
real  problems  of  children.  These  must  have  their  source  in 
the  children's  present  activities,  and  must  appeal  to  some 
interest  or  fill  some  real  need  that  the  child  feels.  A  sharp 
distinction  should  be  drawn  between  children's  problems 
and  adult  problems.  Much  attention  is  being  given  to  the 
problem  method  of  teaching,  but  in  many  cases  the  problems 
used  are  adult  problems,  and  so  do  not  serve  to  arouse  the 
children's  interests.  In  order  that  the  problem  may  func- 
tion in  furnishing  motivation  it  is  necessary  that  it  should 
find  its  fulfillment  in  the  present  or  immediate  future  of  the 
child,  because  the  farther  away  in  time  the  fulfillment  is 
the  less  it  appeals  to  the  children,  till  no  appeal  at  all  is 


MOTIVATION  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING  31 

made  if  the  time  is  very  long.  With  young  children  in  the 
primary  grades  the  interest  is  carried  forward  only  a  very 
short  time,  while,  as  the  child  grows  older,  the  time  ahead 
during  which  interest  may  be  aroused  becomes  longer. 

External  and  internal  stimuli.  The  chief  value  of  chil- 
dren's problems  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  act  as  a  stimulus 
to  arouse  the  children's  interest.  Too  often  the  stimulus 
that  directs  the  child  in  school  is  an  external  one,  imposed 
from  without,  in  the  form  of  love  for  or  fear  of  parents  or 
teacher.  The  real  problems  of  children  serve  as  a  natural 
internal  stimulus  arising  from  the  child's  interests  and  guid- 
ing him  to  do  things  because  they  appeal  to  him  and  seem 
worth  while.  Successful  teaching  consists  largely  in  arous- 
ing and  directing  children's  interests.  After  the  children 
are  really  interested  the  rest  of  teaching  follows  easily  and 
naturally. 

The  right  kind  of  children's  problems  is  a  powerful  means 
of  awakening  interest,  and  thus  supplying  motive  power  for 
the  work  to  be  done.  Children  want  to  do  things,  not  be- 
cause they  are  commanded  by  some  one  in  authority  over 
them,  but  because  they  can  see  some  benefit  to  them  from 
doing  a  certain  thing.  And  this  internal  stimulus  leads  to 
much  more  effective  and  lasting  results  than  the  external 
stimulus.  It  will  make  the  children  aggressive  in  encour- 
aging self-activity,  instead  of  being  mere  passive  listeners. 
The  external  stimulus  leads  only  to  temporary  results, 
while  the  internal  leads  to  permanent  results.  As  soon  as 
the  cause  of  the  external  stimulus  is  removed  the  child's 
interest  is  lost  and  the  thing  ceases  to  play  any  part  in  his 
life,  but  if  the  stimulus  is  a  true  internal  motive  it  stays 
with  the  child  constantly  and  guides  him,  not  merely  in 
school,  but  outside  as  well. 

In  seeking  to  motivate  the  work  of  the  children  the 
teacher  should  see  to  it  that  the  motive  is  a  real  one  in  the 


32  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

child's  life,  and  not  simply  a  passing  interest  aroused  by 
the  strong  personality  of  the  teacher  or  by  skillful  methods 
of  teaching.  The  author  has  observed  strong,  vivacious 
teachers  who  could  sweep  along  a  roomful  of  children  by 
their  enthusiasm,  and  arouse  a  temporary  interest  in  the 
most  abstract  and  meaningless  topics.  But  there  was  no 
real  inherent  motive  on  the  part  of  the  children,  and,  after 
the  lesson  was  over,  the  matter  dropped  from  their  minds. 

So  that  in  judging  teaching  it  is  not  enough  merely  to 
ascertain  whether  the  children  are  interested;  we  must  go 
farther  back  and  seek  the  cause  of  this  interest.  Is  there 
back  of  it  a  real  child's  motive,  or  is  there  simply  an  artificial 
incentive  furnished  by  the  teacher's  personality?  A  teacher 
who  has  the  power  of  arousing  temporary  interest,  even  in 
abstract  topics  foreign  to  the  children's  experiences,  has  a 
talent  for  teaching,  but  how  much  greater  the  returns  if 
this  talent  is  turned  toward  directing  children  along  lines 
of  their  natural  interests. 

Interest  and  learning.  Children's  problems  are  a  means 
of  arousing  interest,  and  interest  plays  a  fundamental  part 
in  the  process  of  learning.  It  is  necessary  for  the  best 
development  of  the  child.  The  child  works  with  greater 
speed  and  with  more  accuracy;  facts  are  remembered  longer 
and  more  easily.  The  apparent  fatigue  of  children  in  the 
afternoon  has  been  shown  to  be  not  a  real  mental  fatigue 
due  to  overwork,  but  to  be  due  simply  to  lack  of  interest. 

As  a  result  of  being  guided  by  these  definite  purposes 
the  children  develop  more  initiative  and  independence  in 
their  work.  This  gives  the  children  more  enthusiasm  for 
their  task,  which  leads  to  more  vigorous  efforts,  resulting  in 
greater  success.  This,  in  turn,  is  a  powerful  incentive  for 
continued  endeavor.  Thus  is  the  problem  of  discipline 
largely  solved,  because  the  children  are  occupied  in  doing 
something  that  appeals  to  them  as  being  worth  while. 


MOTIVATION  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING  33 

Awakening  dormant  interests.  One  purpose  of  science 
teaching  is  to  arouse  new  interests  in  the  children.  One  of 
the  chief  reasons  why  so  few  people  appreciate  and  enjoy 
nature  is  simply  because  no  one  has  called  their  attention 
to  the  great  possibilities  of  enjoyment  to  be  found  here. 
One  of  the  important  purposes  of  teaching  science  is  to  lead 
the  child  to  see  and  appreciate  some  of  the  great  variety  of 
beautiful  and  interesting  things  which  everywhere  abound 
in  nature,  but  which  otherwise  remain  as  a  closed  book  to 
him. 

The  children's  interest  is  easily  aroused  in  these  subjects. 
.These  interests  have  been  lying  dormant,  merely  waiting 
to  be  awakened.  So  that  the  test  of  what  to  teach  in  science 
is  not  merely  and  only  that  for  which  the  child  already  has 
a  feeling  of  interest  or  need,  but  also  that  for  which  he  can 
be  led  to  have  such  a  feeling.  If  the  interests  thus  awak- 
ened have  their  fulfillment  in  the  present  or  immediate 
future  of  the  child,  his  life  has  been  enriched  thereby.  The 
interests  that  we  seek  to  arouse  are  of  this  kind,  because  we 
wish  to  lead  the  child  to  see  and  appreciate  the  things  about 
him.  As  soon  as  he  sees  them,  they  function  at  once  in  his 
experiences.  The  reason  they  have  not  previously  functioned 
has  not  been  because  they  were  foreign  to  his  interests  or 
because  their  fulfillment  was  far  in  the  future;  but  it  has 
simply  been  because  he  has  not  known  of  these  things  in 
his  environment.  Thus  education  should  ever  seek  to 
broaden  and  enlarge  the  child's  experiences  and  to  arouse 
dormant  interests  of  the  right  kind  so  that  the  child  may 
grow. 

Elimination.  This  discussion  of  motivation  leads  to  one 
very  important  conclusion,  namely,  that  only  those  things 
should  be  taught  that  are  useful  in  some  way  to  the  child, 
and  hence  have  a  meaning  to  him.  It  is  psychologically 
impossible  for  a  child  to  have  a  real  motive  for  doing  things 


34  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

that  are  meaningless  to  him.  The  teacher  may  arouse  a 
temporary  interest  in  such  things,  but  there  is  no  real 
motive  back  of  it.  This  means  the  elimination  of  much 
useless  material  from  the  school  subjects.  It  is  already  be- 
ing done  in  arithmetic,  grammar,  spelling,  and  other  sub- 
jects. It  should  also  be  done  in  science.  This  is  especially 
true  of  physiology.  A  large  proportion  of  the  time  has 
been  devoted  to  topics  that  are  entirely  meaningless  to 
the  child,  such  as  most  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology. 
Practically  all  of  this  should  be  eliminated  and  the  time 
devoted  to  hygiene.  In  elementary  agriculture  also  much 
has  been  taught  that  is  foreign  to  the  child's  interests  and 
capacities.  The  whole  field  of  agriculture  needs  to  be  gone 
over  very  carefully,  with  the  child's  needs  and  interests  in 
mind,  and  much  material  eliminated. 

Perhaps  the  chief  elimination  in  science  should  come,  not 
so  much  in  the  topics  studied  as  in  the  facts  about  the  topics 
that  are  considered  and  in  the  observations  made.  In  some 
cases  a  topic  which  in  itself  is  worth  while  may  be  chosen 
for  study,  but  the  time  may  be  occupied  with  many  mean- 
ingless observations  and  the  real  points  of  interest  may  be 
obscured  in  a  mass  of  detail.  These  meaningless  observa- 
tions should  be  eliminated. 

Specific  motives  in  teaching  science.  In  concluding  this 
chapter  some  definite  motives  that  may  be  used  in  teaching 
science  may  be  suggested.  Science  touches  the  child's  lifr> 
in  so  many  vital  points  that  there  seems  little  excuse  for  no 
properly  motivating  this  subject.  It  is  easily  done.  Some  of 
these  motives  may  be  briefly  listed  as  follows:  — 

1.  Identification  of  common  plants  and  animals,  such  as 
birds,  trees,  and  flowers. 

2.  Earning  money,  as  in  gardening,  poultry-keeping,  and 
selling  bird-houses. 

3.  Care  of  pets  and  domesticated  animals. 


MOTIVATION  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING  35 

4.  Competition  for  prizes,  as  in  gardening  and  building 
bird-houses. 

5.  Making  collections,  as  of  seeds,  leaves,  weeds,  flowers, 
newspaper  clippings. 

6.  Making  things,  as  bird-houses  and  window-boxes. 

7.  Games  and  sports,  as  skating,  coasting,  playground 
apparatus,  movies. 

3.  Study  of  the  operation  of  machines,  as  engines,  motors, 
and  automobiles. 


CHAPTER  V 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING  SCIENCE 

IN  order  to  procure  proper  motivation  it  is  suggested  thai; 
the  three  following  points  be  considered  by  the  teacher  in 
planning  her  lessons:  first,  the  child's  problem;  second,  the 
development  of  the  lesson;  and  third,  the  application.  The 
most  important  thing  is  the  child's  problem,  because  this  is 
the  center  that  determines  the  development  of  the  lesson 
and  its  application. 

Value  of  a  problem.  In  the  previous  chapter  the  value 
of  the  child's  problem  in  arousing  interest  and  motivating 
the  work  was  shown.  The  problem  will  also  be  a  great  help 
to  the  teacher  as  she  plans  her  lesson,  both  in  selecting  and 
in  organizing  the  subject-matter. 

It  also  serves  as  a  guide  during  the  lesson  for  both  teacher 
and  children,  in  determining  what  shall  be  included  in  the 
lesson.  Many  times  when  the  lesson  is  begun  without  any 
definite  purpose  on  the  part  of  the  children,  some  little 
incident  may  deflect  the  discussion  entirely  away  from  that 
which  the  teacher  had  in  mind  to  accomplish,  and  she  is 
perplexed  to  know  how  to  direct  the  lesson  back  to  the 
desired  end.  With  a  definite  problem  before  the  children 
this  difficulty  is  solved,  because  the  problem  is  a  constant 
guide.  If  the  recitation  is  getting  away  from  the  problem, 
mere  calling  attention  to  it  will  enable  the  children  them- 
selves to  determine  whether  the  points  under  discussion  re- 
late to  the  problem;  and  if  not,  the  children  may  orient 
themselves.  It  thus  serves  as  a  guide  to  both  children  and 
teacher. 

One  of  the  chief  values  of  the  problem  lies  in  the  fact  that 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  SCIENCE  37 

it  permits  so  much  of  the  initiative  for  what  is  being  done 
to  come  from  the  child.  The  child's  problem,  and  not  the 
teacher,  is  the  determining  factor. 

Lack  of  a  problem  in  teaching  illustrated.  As  a  definite 
illustration  of  the  aid  that  a  child's  problem  gives  the 
teacher  in  selecting  and  organizing  material,  and  gives  both 
teacher  and  children  in  guiding  the  lesson,  we  will  take  a 
lesson  on  a  maple  tree.  If  the  teacher  is  to  give  a  lesson  on 
this  topic,  and  has  no  definite  problem  in  mind,  she  does 
not  know  what  points  to  take  up.  The  whole  discussion  is 
confused  and  indefinite.  Not  having  any  definite  purpose 
to  accomplish  the  teacher  does  not  know  when  the  lesson  has 
ended. 

Many  insignificant  details  may  be  observed  about  the 
leaf,  such  as  length  of  petiole,  color  of  petiole,  length  and 
breadth  of  leaf,  number  of  points  or  lobes  on  the  margin, 
color  of  upper  and  lower  surfaces,  general  shape,  roughness 
and  hairiness  of  surfaces,  number  and  arrangement  of 
veins,  and  so  on  indefinitely,  observing  petty  points,  most 
of  which  have  no  significance  to  the  child.  The  points  that 
do  have  meaning  to  him  are  buried  in  such  a  mass  of  detail 
that  he  does  not  see  their  significance.  Anything  about  the 
tree  may  be  considered,  the  lesson  may  be  extended  to  any 
length  of  time,  there  is  no  special  reason  why  the  maple 
tree  should  be  studied,  and  no  use  of  the  knowledge  gained 
is  called  for. 

Value  of  a  problem  in  teaching  illustrated.  But  how 
different  the  situation  becomes  when  we  start  with  a  definite 
problem  like  the  following:  "We  will  study  the  maple  tree 
so  that  we  can  tell  it  from  the  elm  tree  as  we  see  it  growing." 
Now  the  points  to  be  taken  up  stand  out  sharply;  they  are 
the  differences  between  the  maple  tree  and  the  elm  tree. 
If  the  lesson  is  an  indoor  one,  the  leaves  may  be  studied  to 
note  their  differences  in  shape,  margin,  veining,  etc.;  like- 


38  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

wise  for  the  features  seen  only  outdoors,  differences  in  the 
shape  and  method  of  branching  of  the  trees.  All  these 
points,  otherwise  disconnected,  fall  into  a  regular  orderly 
series,  and  thus  the  problem  helps  not  only  in  the  selection, 
but  in  the  arrangement  of  material  as  well.  Large  groups 
of  differences  stand  out  first;  such  as  differences  in  leaves, 
in  fruit,  in  bark;  then  each  of  these  has  its  subdivisions. 

Thus  this  definite  problem  serves  as  a  central  thought 
for  the  whole  lesson,  a  definite  aim  toward  which  all  may 
work,  and  as  a  result  they  know  when  they  have  reached 
the  goal  and  the  purpose  of  the  lesson  has  been  accom- 
plished. And  the  statement  of  the  problem  suggests  in  itself 
the  use  to  be  made  of  the  knowledge  gained,  namely,  to 
find  the  two  trees  growing  and  to  distinguish  them. 

Can  any  one  doubt  what  the  difference  will  be  between 
these  two  lessons  in  the  attitude  of  both  teacher  and 
children  and  in  the  interest  shown?  One  has  but  to  visit 
schoolrooms  and  observe  the  two  types  of  lessons,  one 
aimless,  the  other  definitely  motivated,  to  be  thoroughly 
convinced  of  the  vast  gulf  that  separates  these  two  meth- 
ods of  teaching. 

In  order  that  a  problem  may  accomplish  its  purpose  of 
arousing  the  interest  of  the  child,  it  must  be  very  definite 
and  specific.  Broad  general  purposes  such  as  the  teacher 
may  have  in  mind  make  little  appeal  to  the  child.  His 
problem  must  be  one  that  is  possible  of  immediate  fulfill- 
ment. 

Presenting  problem  to  children.  If  the  problem  is  to  serve 
as  the  guide  and  motive  power  for  the  lesson,  it  is  self- 
evident  that  the  first  step  of  the  teacher  is  to  get  the 
problem  clearly  before  the  children,  and  to  show  the  rela- 
tion between  the  work  to  be  done  and  the  end  that  the  child 
seeks.  In  bringing  the  problem  before  the  children  use 
ohould  be  made  of  the  principle  of  apperception.  The  knowl- 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  SCIENCE  39 

edge  which  the  children  already  possess  regarding  the 
problem  or  some  topic  related  to  it  should  be  brought  out 
by  questioning,  and  then  the  problem  should  be  presented 
to  the  children.  The  skillful  introduction  to  the  problem 
plays  an  important  part  in  arousing  the  interest  of  the 
children  in  the  problem  itself.  The  problem  must  be  clearly 
shown  to  be  related  to  the  children's  experiences,  to  some- 
thing regarding  which  they  already  have  some  knowledge. 
The  child  has  no  interest  in  what  is  absolutely  foreign  to 
his  experiences. 

Development.  The  development  should  be  so  planned  as 
to  answer  the  question  raised  in  the  problem.  Enough  points 
should  be  included  to  answer  the  question  satisfactorily, 
and  those  points  which  have  no  bearing  on  the  problem 
should  be  omitted.  Here  is  where  the  matter  of  elimina- 
tion comes  in,  eliminating,  not  the  whole  topic,  but  those 
phases  of  the  topic  which  have  no  meaning  for  the  problem 
involved. 

After  those  points  have  been  selected  which  are  needed 
to  solve  the  problem,  the  next  matter  to  consider  is  the 
organization  of  this  material.  This  means  first  putting 
together  in  large  groups  those  things  that  naturally  belong 
together,  and  then,  secondly,  making  the  proper  subdivi- 
sions of  each  group.  And,  finally,  there  is  the  matter  of  se- 
quence, as  to  which  point  shall  come  first  and  which  last. 
This  organization  should  be  made  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  child  and  not  from  that  of  the  adult.  In  those  problems 
which  involve  some  manual  activity,  such  as  gardening  and 
building  bird-houses,  the  most  natural  sequence  from  the 
child's  standpoint  is  the  order  in  which  the  various  things 
are  actually  done,  those  which  are  done  first  being  con- 
sidered first,  and  so  on  till  the  last  step  is  reached.  The 
child's  problem  will  prove  a  great  help  in  organizing  the 
subject-matter. 


40  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Application.  The  final  step  comes  in  the  application  or 
use  of  what  the  child  has  learned.  The  use  of  knowledge  is 
the  chief  end  of  education.  A  lesson  without  application 
means  wasted  effort.  One  of  the  vital  things  in  planning 
a  science  lesson  is  to  consider  how  the  children  may  be 
encouraged  to  make  use  of  what  they  have  learned.  If  the 
problem  does  not  seem  to  allow  of  any  application,  we  may 
well  inquire  whether  the  problem  is  really  worth  while. 
And,  indeed,  the  best  kind  of  problem  suggests  the  applica- 
tion, because  it  is  the  possibility  suggested  by  the  problem 
of  helping  the  child  do  something  which  he  wants  to  do 
that  furnishes  the  main  element  in  motivation. 

The  word  "application"  is  used  in  a  very  broad  sense  to 
include  any  use  of  knowledge  that  has  any  worth  to  the 
child;  it  may  be  in  deriving  greater  pleasure  in  life,  or  it 
may  be  in  aiding  him  better  to  perform  his  home  duties. 
Knowledge  is  useful  when  it  helps  in  any  way  to  make  life 
more  worth  living. 

During  the  lesson  the  teacher  should  suggest  ways  in 
which  the  children  may  make  use  of  what  they  have 
learned,  and  do  what  she  can  to  encourage  it.  The  children 
may  be  asked  to  do  certain  things,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
each  science  lesson  opportunity  may  be  given  for  them  to 
report  on  their  observations.  This  method  may  be  used  fre- 
quently in  the  effort  to  awaken  dormant  interests  in  nature. 
If  the  children  are  asked  and  expected  to  make  these  ap- 
plications, and  opportunities  are  given  for  reporting  to  the 
teacher  or  class,  this  will  serve  as  an  additional  stimulus. 
It  will  be  found  that  the  number  of  children  who  report 
on  their  observations  may  be  gradually  increased  by  con- 
stant encouragement. 

Following  are  suggested  some  ways  in  which  application 
may  be  made:  (1)  actually  doing  things  suggested  in  the 
lesson,  as  in  planting  a  home  garden,  destroying  insect  pests 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  SCIENCE  41 

and  weeds,  building  nesting-boxes  for  birds,  planting  trees, 
helping  parents  at  home,  forming  hygienic  habits;  (2)  watch- 
ing others  doing  the  things  studied,  as  the  farmer  and  gar- 
dener ploughing  their  fields  or  harvesting  their  crops; 
(3)  making  outdoor  observations  on  the  topics  studied, 
such  as  flowers,  trees,  birds,  and  insects  in  their  natural 
environment,  and  observations  of  the  structure  and  working 
of  common  applications  of  science,  such  as  the  automobile 
and  telephone;  (4)  bringing  specimens  to  school  to  show  the 
children's  ability  to  identify  the  form  studied,  such  as 
flowers,  weeds,  and  leaves  of  trees;  (5)  making  collections, 
such  as  weed  seeds,  woods,  nests,  woody  mushrooms, 
flowers,  leaves  of  trees,  ferns,  and  insects;  (6)  talking  over 
with  the  parents  at  home  the  topic  studied;  (7)  cutting  out 
clippings  from  newspapers  and  magazines  relating  to  the 
topic  under  consideration. 

A  few  suggestions  regarding  the  working-out  of  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  a  lesson  plan  are  summarized  below  in  brief 
outline  form. 

Summarized  Suggestions  for  Lesson  Plan 

A.  Introduction  to  child's  problem, 

1.  The  introduction  to  the  child's  problem  should  deal  with 
the  children's  experiences. 

2.  It  should  be  appropriate  to  the  problem. 

B.  Statement  of  child's  problem. 

1.  The  child's  problem  should  relate  to  those  things  for  which 
the  child  already  has  a  feeling  of  interest  or  need,  or  for 
which  he  can  be  led  to  have  such  a  feeling. 

2.  It  should  find  its  basis  in  the  child's  present  life,  or  in  that 
of  his  immediate  future. 

3.  It  should  be  worth  while. 

4.  It  should  be  definite. 

5.  It  should  deal  with  only  one  main  thought. 

6.  It  should  be  clearly  stated  in  children's  language. 


42  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

C.  Development. 

1.  All  points  included  in  the  development  should  relate  to  the 
problem. 

2.  Enough  points  should  be  included  to  answer  the  problem. 

3.  The  development  should  be  well  organized  with  reference 
to  the  problem. 

4.  Provision  should  be  made  for  summarizing  the  essential 
points. 

D.  Application. 

1.  The  application  should  be  the  doing  of  something  which 
interests  the  child  and  which  can  be  done  naturally  in  his 
ordinary  life. 

2.  It  should  suggest  the  doing  of  only  a  few  things,  preferably 
of  only  one  thing. 

3.  It  should  be  stated  clearly  and  with  sufficient  detail  so  that 
the  child  understands  what  he  is  to  do. 

As  a  definite  illustration  of  these  suggestions  the  fol- 
lowing lesson  is  given  for  a  third  grade:  — 

An  Illustrative  Third-Grade  Lesson 

I.  Topic:  Elm  and  maple  tree. 
II.  Grade:  Third. 

III.  Season:  Fall  or  spring. 

IV.  Materials:   A  maple  and  elm  leaf  for  each  child;  a  cluster  of 
elm  and  maple  leaves  showing  arrangement. 

V.  The  Lesson. 

A.  Child's  problem. 

1.  Introduction  to  child's  problem. 

How  many  children  have  trees  in  your  yard  at  home? 
How  many  different  kinds  have  you?  Have  you  noticed 
how  many  kinds  of  trees  there  are  in  our  school  yard? 
Would  you  like  to  know  the  names  of  these  trees  so  that 
you  can  call  them  by  their  names  as  you  do  your  friends? 
The  trees  growng  in  our  yard  are  the  elm  and  the  maple. 
2.  Statement  of  child's  problem. 

I  have  here  some  leaves  from  these  trees,  and  we  will 
study  them  to  see  how  they  differ,  so  that  we  can  tell  the 
elm  from  the  maple  tree  by  means  of  their  leaves. 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  SCIENCE  43 

#.  Development. 

Outline  of  points  Questions 

1.  Shape  of  leaf.. What   differences  do  you  find   in   these 

leaves?  How  are  they  different  in  shape? 
Several  may  go  to  the  board  and  make  a 
drawing  of  each  leaf,  and  we  will  ask  the 
class  to  decide  which  shows  the  shape 
best. 

2.  Size Is  there  any  difference  in  the  size? 

3.  Margin Are  the  edges  alike?  Make  a  drawing  on 

the  board  of  the  edges  of  the  two  leaves. 

4.  Veining Do  the  veins  run  in  the  same  way  in  both 

leaves?  Can  some  one  make  a  drawing 
to  show  the  difference? 

5.  Arrangement. .  .Look  at  these  clusters  I  have  here  and 

see  if  the  leaves  are  placed  the  same  on 
both  trees. 

Which  do  you  think  is  the  surest  way 
to  tell  these  leaves  apart? 

C.  Application. 

When  school  is  dimissed  you  may  look  carefully  at  the  leaves 
of  the  trees  in  the  school  yard  and  find  a  maple  tree  and  an  elm 
tree.  Bring  in  a  leaf  from  each  tree.  To-morrow  I  will  ask  each 
of  you  to  tell  the  class  exactly  where  these  two  trees  are.  When 
the  leaves  begin  to  change  color,  we  will  watch  these  two  trees 
and  see  if  their  leaves  turn  the  same  color. 

D.  Correlated  work. 

1.  Art. 

A  few  children  may  be  asked  to  make  drawings  of  the 
leaves  on  the  board,  and  besides  this,  at  the  close  of  the 
lesson,  each  child  may  make  a  free-hand  outline  drawing 
of  each  leaf  with  pencil,  or  a  mass  drawing  may  be  made 
with  green  crayons.  Free-hand  cuttings  may  be  made, 
then  colored  with  crayons.  Blue  prints  of  the  leaves  side 
by  side  may  be  made. 

2.  Literature. 

After  the  lesson  on  the  trees  has  been  given,  some  of  the 
following  literature  may  be  read  to  the  children:  — 
Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  page  203. 


44  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Stone  and  Fickett,  Trees  in  Poetry  and  Prose,  pages  25- 
39;  81-93. 

Wait  and  Leanard,  Among  Flowers  and  Trees  unth  the 
Poets,  pages  286;  297-300. 

In  the  development  the  outline  suggests  the  main  points 
to  be  brought  out  that  will  help  to  solve  the  child's  problem. 
The  exact  questions  to  be  asked  cannot  be  definitely  planned 
beforehand.  It  is  better  to  ask  a  few  leading  questions  than 
many  minor  ones.  The  question  involved  in  the  statement 
of  the  problem,  "What  differences  do  you  find  in  these 
leaves?  "  would  be  sufficient  to  bring  out  most  of  the  points 
in  the  lesson.  After  the  children  have  exhausted  their 
answers  to  this  question,  if  some  other  points  of  difference 
have  been  overlooked  the  teacher  may  then  ask  other  ques- 
tions to  direct  the  children's  attention  to  these  points.  The 
questions  given  in  this  lesson  are  intended  for  this  purpose 
in  case  some  point  is  overlooked.  It  is  not  expected  that  it 
will  be  necessary  actually  to  ask  all  these  questions. 

Place  of  observation  in  teaching  science.  The  abandon- 
ment of  the  old  faculty  psychology,  and  the  very  radical 
modification  of  the  theory  of  formal  discipline  now  gener- 
ally accepted,  must  have  an  important  bearing  on  aims  and 
methods  of  teaching  science.  We  can  no  longer  entertain 
the  idea  that  there  is  a  general  power  of  observation  which 
can  be  trained  by  observing  anything,  and  that  this  power, 
once  trained,  can  then  be  turned  to  use  in  any  field.  The 
power  of  observation  is  specific.  Instead  of  being  content 
to  allow  the  child  to  observe  any  material  that  may  be 
available,  we  must  direct  the  child  to  observe  those  things 
which  in  themselves  are  worth  observing  on  account  of  the 
relation  which  they  bear  to  his  life.  If  there  seem  to  be  in 
nature  some  things  which  the  child  should  observe,  then 
specific  training  in  the  observations  of  these  particular 
objects  should  be  given. 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  SCIENCE  45 

Thus,  in  the  first  place,  a  very  careful  selection  of  topics 
is  necessary.  Furthermore,  having  decided  on  the  objects 
worth  observing,  it  will  not  suffice  merely  to  have  the  child 
observe  anything  and  everything  about  the  object  in  ques- 
tion, but  he  should  be  led  to  observe  those  features  which 
are  worth  observing.  Thus,  there  is  necessitated  not  only  a 
careful  selection  of  topics,  but  also  a  careful  selection  of 
the  line  of  observation  to  be  followed. 

The  relation  which  these  things  bear  to  the  child's  life 
may  be  taken  as  the  basis  for  this  selection.  The  child 
should  see  that  the  work  is  related  to  something  that  inter- 
ests him,  and  so  is  worth  while.  The  observation  should  be 
guided  by  specific,  clear-cut  problems  within  the  child's 
comprehension,  which  in  themselves  suggest  and  limit  the 
points  to  be  studied.  The  amount  of  observation  called  for 
will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  problem.  In  some  cases 
it  may  be  an  important  factor;  in  others  it  may  play  but  a 
minor  part. 

Elimination  of  worthless  observation.  Just  at  the  present 
time  one  of  the  needs  in  science  teaching  is  the  elimination 
of  much  worthless  observation  of  insignificant  details  that 
have  no  meaning.  For  instance,  one  type  of  lesson  is  to 
take  some  material,  such  as  a  flower,  and  have  the  chil- 
dren make  all  possible  observations  on  it  without  any 
special  purpose,  except  that  the  children  see  all  they  can 
about  the  flower.  This  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  simplified  form 
of  the  analysis  blanks  formerly  used  so  much  in  high-school 
botany,  on  which  were  recorded  in  tiresome  details  a  great 
mass  of  meaningless  observations. 

Observation  for  its  own  sake  cannot  be  justified  as  an 
aim  of  science  teaching.  This  narrow  conception  has  helped 
to  bring  the  subject  into  disrepute,  and  has  sometimes  been 
the  cause  of  an  apparent  conflict  between  agriculture  and 
nature-study.  Observation  is  not  an  end  in  itself,  but 


46  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

simply  a  means  to  an  end.  The  introduction  of  this  new 
method  of  study  was  such  a  radical  departure  from  the 
method  in  common  use  that  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
for  a  while  undue  emphasis  was  laid  upon  it.  It  should  now 
be  given  its  proper  place  as  secondary  to,  and  controlled 
by,  some  large  aim  expressed  in  terms  that  interest  the  child. 
The  effect  of  applying  the  suggestions  here  given  might 
seem  to  lessen  the  importance  attached  to  observation,  but 
it  would  give  a  more  rational  and  symmetrical  perspective  to 
the  whole  subject  of  science.  Too  often  the  work  in  science 
has  consisted  merely  of  aimless  observation  alone,  and  the 
work  has  stopped  there,  whereas  this  should  be  but  the 
starting-point.  Observation  is  simply  a  means  of  gathering 
the  raw  material  which  is  to  be  used,  and  the  chief  value 
of  observation  consists  in  the  fact  that  it  constitutes  an 
effective  way  of  gathering  this  material,  quite  different  from 
the  book  method  used  in  most  school  subjects.  But  the 
work  should  be  organized  around  a  vital  problem  and 
carried  through  to  some  real  issue.  A  science  lesson  which 
consists  of  observation  alone  may  be  quite  as  deficient  as 
one  in  which  observation  forms  no  part.  It  is  not  the 
writer's  intention  to  minimize  the  value  of  observation,  but 
simply  to  attempt  to  point  out  its  true  place,  and  to  hint 
at  some  of  the  larger  and  more  vital  problems  which  are 
possible  in  teaching  science. 


PART  II 
BIOLOGICAL  SCIENCE 


CHAPTER  VI 

TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  BIRDS 

Motivation  of  bird-study.  Bird-study  is  a  topic  that  is 
easily  and  naturally  motivated.  Birds  are  a  common  and 
noticeable  form  of  life  in  the  child's  environment.  One  of 
the  first  motives  appealed  to  is  the  desire  to  know  the  names 
of  these  common  birds.  The  identification  of  birds  may  form 
an  important  part  of  the  work  in  the  primary  grades.  The 
bright  colors  of  many  of  our  birds  and  the  activities  of  bird 
life  make  a  combination  that  appeals  strongly  to  children. 
After  a  child  has  once  begun  to  notice  bird  life  the  interest 
naturally  grows. 

The  manual  activities  involved  in  building  bird-houses  are 
other  features  that  appeal  to  children.  The  older  children 
are  interested  in  the  practical  value  that  birds  are  to  man, 
so  that  their  economic  value  may  be  studied  in  the  upper 
grades.  Children  of  all  ages  are  interested  in  the  formation 
of  bird  clubs  for  the  study  and  protection  of  birds.  They 
are  interested  in  reporting  observations  they  have  made 
on  birds.  A  spring  calendar  is  an  excellent  means  for 
stimulating  these  observations.  The  teacher  should  encour- 
age these  observations  and  give  opportunities  for  reports 
to  be  made  to  the  class.  In  the  autumn  a  collection  of 
nests  may  be  made  for  the  school.  Many  of  the  lessons 
taught  in  the  schoolroom  may  furnish  topics  for  conver- 
sation at  home.  The  older  children  may  be  encouraged  to 
cut  out  clippings  relating  to  birds  from  magazines  and 
papers,  and  to  bring  them  to  school  to  put  on  a  bulletin 
board. 


50  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Materials  for  bird-study.  The  best  and  final  thing  for  the 
child  to  study  is  the  living  bird  outdoors.  For  the  school- 
room lessons  some  material  is  needed  to  create  an  interest 
which  shall  lead  the  child  to  this  outdoor  study.  In  most 
schools  mounted  birds  cannot  be  obtained,  and  it  is  ques- 
tionable whether  these  would  be  desirable,  especially  for 
young  children.  As  an  introduction  to  bird-study  sometimes 
it  may  be  possible  to  keep  a  pet  canary  in  the  schoolroom 
for  a  few  days. 

Pictures.  There  is  a  substitute  for  mounted  birds  that 
can  be  used,  which  serves  the  purpose  exceptionally  well, 
namely,  colored  pictures.  Very  good  pictures  can  now  be 
obtained  from  the  following  sources:  — 

1.  National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies, 

1974  Broadway,  New  York  City. 
About  ninety  pictures  have  been  published,  to  which 
six  are  being  added  each  year.  The  price  is  two  cents 
apiece,  including,  besides  the  picture,  an  outline  draw- 
ing and  a  four-page  pamphlet  descriptive  of  the  bird's 
habits.  On  application  to  the  above  address  a  list  of 
pictures  for  sale  will  be  furnished.  The  Association 
has  recently  published  the  Audubon  pocket  bird  col- 
lection. This  is  a  folded  card,  about  nine  by  seven 
inches,  containing  small  colored  pictures  of  birds.  It 
is  easily  carried  in  the  field  and  makes  a  ready  means 
of  naming  birds.  Case  number  1  contains  sixty-three 
pictures  of  winter  birds  of  the  Eastern  United  States. 
Case  number  2  contains  eighty-two  pictures  of  birds 
common  in  the  Southeastern  States.  Case  number  3 
contains  seventy-four  figures  of  March  and  April  mi- 
grants of  Eastern  United  States.  Case  number  4 
contains  eighty-four  figures  of  the  common  winter 
birds  of  the  Western  United  States.  The  price  is  ten 
cents  for  each  case. 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  BIRDS  51 

2.  G.  P.  Browne  Company, 

Beverly,  Massachusetts. 

About  three  hundred  and  fifty  pictures  have  been 
published.  The  price  is  two  cents  each.  These  may  be 
obtained  on  light-weight  mounts  for  four  cents  each. 

3.  Massachusetts  Audubon  Society, 

66  Newbury  Street,  Boston. 

This  society  sells  pictures  mounted  as  charts.  There 
are  three  charts,  known  as  the  "  Audubon  Bird  Charts," 
twenty-seven  by  forty-two  inches,  arranged  so  that 
they  can  be  hung  in  the  schoolroom.  Charts  Numbers 
1  and  2  each  contain  twenty-six  common  birds,  and 
Chart  Number  3,  twenty  winter  birds.  The  price  of 
each  chart  is  $1.50. 

4.  The  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  has  issued  a  large 
poster  on  the  feeding  of  winter  birds.    This  may  be 
obtained  free  on  application  to  the  Bureau  at  Wash- 
ington, D.C. 

Hand  work.  For  young  children  it  is  important  that  a 
large  amount  of  hand  work  should  be  provided,  as  children 
acquire  knowledge  faster  by  this  means.  Colored  pictures 
furnish  material  for  this  kind  of  work.  The  children  are 
given  outlines  and,  with  the  colored  pictures  before  them, 
color  in  the  outline,  using  either  colored  crayons  or  water- 
colors.  The  outlines  may  be  obtained  in  two  ways:  first, 
the  teacher,  by  means  of  a  mimeograph  or  other  device, 
may  make  enough  outlines  to  supply  the  class;  second,  the 
children  may  make  the  outlines  themselves.  The  older 
children  may  make  free-hand  drawings  of  the  outline  from 
the  picture. 

The  younger  children  may  trace  the  outlines.  For  this 
purpose  two  grades  of  paper  are  needed,  the  ordinary 
drawing-paper  on  which  the  final  outline  is  to  be  colored, 
and  some  paper  thin  enough  for  tracing;  thin  typewriting 


52  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

paper  will  do.  The  paper  is  held  over  the  picture  and  the 
outline  of  the  bird  traced.  When  this  is  finished  it  is  turned 
over  and  placed  on  the  ordinary  drawing-paper  with  the 
outline  next  to  it.  The  child  takes  his  pencil  and  marks 
back  and  forth  a  number  of  times  across  the  paper,  just 
over  the  outline  already  drawn.  This  causes  enough  of  the 
pencil  mark  to  be  rubbed  off  to  reproduce  the  outline  on 
the  second  paper.  The  child  may  go  over  this  outline  with 
a  pencil  to  make  it  clear,  and  then  color  it.  Free-hand  out- 
lines of  birds  may  be  cut  from  paper  or  cardboard,  and  then 
colored  on  both  sides  with  crayons.  These  may  be  suspended 
by  means  of  thread  to  represent  flying  birds. 

The  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  enable  the  children  to 
identify  the  birds  hi  the  field  more  easily,  because  they  have 
noted  the  colors  and  their  location,  and  they  should  be 
encouraged  to  look  for  these  birds.  If  this  hand  work 
stops  hi  the  schoolroom  without  leading  to  the  study  of 
birds  outdoors,  it  may  be  questioned  whether  it  is  worth 
while. 

Bird  calendar.  A  spring  bird  calendar  is  a  source  of  never- 
failing  interest,  beginning  even  with  the  very  youngest 
children  and  extending  up  through  the  grades.  A  calendar 
may  best  be  kept  on  a  large  piece  of  heavy  paper  or  card- 
board. At  the  top  should  be  some  artistic  decoration  appro- 
priate to  the  subject. '  For  the  young  children  the  reports 
may  be  arranged  in  four  columns:  — 


Name  of  bird 

Name  of  child  first  reporting 

Date  first  seen 

Where  seen 

For  the  older  children  the  following  columns  may  be 
added:  — 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  BIRDS  53 


Date  when  abundant 

Date  when  nesting 

Remarks 

The  competitive  element  suggested  in  having  the  child's 
name  appear  on  the  calendar  stimulates  the  children  and 
arouses  much  interest.  Several  precautions  will  need  to  be 
observed  by  the  teacher.  Children  will  often  report  very 
positively  the  appearance  of  a  bird  a  month  before  it  is  due 
to  arrive.  If  the  teacher  has  access  to  a  local  calendar  kept 
by  some  bird-student,  it  will  help  her  in  knowing  when  to 
expect  certain  birds.  The  migration  dates  for  several  locali- 
ties in  the  Eastern  United  States  are  given  in  Chapman's 
Handbook  of  Birds.  If  the  children  report  birds  several 
weeks  ahead  of  the  dates  given  on  some  reliable  migration 
record,  probably  they  have  made  a  mistake,  and  they 
should  be  told  so  by  the  teacher. 

After  it  is  probable  that  the  bird  has  arrived,  it  must  be 
understood  by  the  class  that  no  bird's  name  is  to  go  down 
on  the  calender  till  the  child  has  given  such  a  good  descrip- 
tion of  the  bird  that  there  is  no  doubt  about  its  being  seen. 
In  case  of  doubt  the  name  should  not  be  put  down. 
1  Bird  games.  The  game  element  may  profitably  be  intro- 
duced into  bird-study,  especially  with  young  children.  Fol- 
lowing are  some  games  which  the  author  has  seen  used  that 
help  the  child  in  describing  and  identifying  birds:  — 

Games  with  colored  pictures.  Game  Number  1.  The 
teacher  shows  the  pictures  one  at  a  time  to  the  children, 
keeping  the  name  covered.  The  child  who  first  correctly 
names  the  bird  takes  the  picture.  The  child  who  has  the 
most  pictures  at  the  end  of  the  game  wins. 

Game  Number  2.   This  may  be  used  with  older  children. 


54  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

A  large  number  of  pictures  are  hung  around  the  room  and 
numbered,  the  names  being  covered.  Each  child  writes  the 
list  of  numbers  on  a  piece  of  paper,  and  opposite  the  number 
the  name  of  the  bird.  The  child  who  names  the  most  wins. 

Game  Number  3.  The  teacher  pins  the  picture  of  some 
bird  on  a  child's  back  and  shows  the  picture  to  the  class. 
The  child  stands  before  the  class  and  asks  questions  of  any 
one  he  wishes  about  the  bird,  till  he  guesses  it  correctly. 
He  then  names  some  one  else  to  take  his  place. 

Game  Number  4.  The  pictures  are  placed  on  a  table  or 
stood  on  the  blackboard  railing,  with  the  names  covered. 
The  children  are  asked  in  turn  to  pick  out  the  picture  of  a 
certain  bird.  The  child  who  picks  out  the  most  correctly 
wins. 

Game  Number  5.  A  child  stands  before  the  class  with  a 
collection  of  pictures,  the  names  being  covered.  He  names 
them  one  at  a  time  till  he  makes  a  mistake.  The  child  who 
first  corrects  the  mistake  then  takes  his  turn  in  naming  the 
pictures. 

Game  Number  6.  The  names  of  birds  are  written  on 
separate  slips  of  paper,  and  these  are  placed  on  the  edge  of 
the  blackboard.  The  pictures  of  the  birds  are  placed  on  the 
table  with  the  names  covered.  The  children  are  asked  to 
pick  out  a  picture  and  place  it  beside  its  name.  The  purpose 
of  the  game  is  to  see  which  child  can  match  the  largest 
number  of  pictures  and  slips. 

Games  vnthout  pictures.  Game  Number  7.  A  child  stands 
before  the  class  and  describes  some  bird  which  he  has  in 
mind.  The  children  try  to  guess  the  bird  from  the  descrip- 
tion. The  child  who  first  guesses  it  correctly  then  begins 
the  description  of  another  bird. 

Game  Number  8.  This  is  a  slight  modification  of  the 
previous  game.  A  child  stands  before  the  class  and  has 
some  particular  bird  in  mind.  The  children  take  turns  in 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  BIRDS  55 

asking  questions  about  the  bird,  its  color,  size,  etc.,  till  some 
one  guesses  the  bird.  This  child  then  takes  his  turn  in 
answering  questions  about  some  other  bird. 

Dramatization.  Children  enjoy  dramatization  and  learn 
much  thereby.  Some  simple  bird  play  could  easily  be  ar- 
ranged and  the  parts  taken  by  the  children.  The  Liberty 
Bell  Bird  Club  has  arranged  three  plays:  The  Workers,  The 
Bird's  Return,  and  The  Birds'  House-Hunting,  which  may 
be  obtained  of  the  Farm  Journal,  Philadelphia,  for  three 
two-cent  stamps  each.  Probably  Percy  MacKaye's  Sanc- 
tuary could  be  adapted  for  grammar  grades. 

Bird  clubs.  Much  enthusiasm  can  be  aroused  by  the 
organization  of  bird  clubs.  A  local  bird  club  can  be  formed 
anywhere,  but  more  interest  will  be  aroused  if  this  is  formed 
in  connection  with  some  large  organization.  There  are  at 
least  two  ways  in  which  this  can  be  done.  One  is  through 
the  National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies.  Each  child 
who  wishes  to  join  pays  ten  cents.  The  names  are  sent  by 
the  teacher  to  New  York  City  to  the  Association  at  1974 
Broadway.  Each  child  receives  in  return  eight  colored  bird 
pictures,  the  Audubon  pocket  bird  collection,  and  an  Au- 
dubon button,  which  has  on  it  a  picture  of  the  robin  and 
the  words  "Audubon  Society."  If  there  are  fifteen  or 
more  members,  the  teacher  receives  Bird-Lore  for  one 
year. 

Another  means  is  through  the  Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club  of 
the  Farm  Journal,  Philadelphia.  The  following  pledge  is 
written  at  the  top  of  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  the  children  who 
wish  to  join  write  their  names  under  this  pledge:  "I  desire 
to  become  a  member  of  the  Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club,  and 
promise  to  study  and  protect  all  song  and  insectivorous 
birds  and  to  do  what  I  can  for  the  club." 

This  list  is  sent  to  the  Farm  Journal  at  Philadelphia. 
Each  child  in  return  receives  a  little  pamphlet,  entitled, 


56  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Guide  of  the  Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club;  he  also  receives  a  bird 
button,  which  has  on  it  a  picture  of  a  swallow  and  of  the 
Liberty  Bell,  and  printed  across  it  the  motto,  "  Protect  Our 
Feathered  Friends,"  and  around  the  circumference,  "Th' 
Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club." 

The  advantage  of  the  first  club  is  that  each  child  receives 
pictures  and  leaflets  which  may  be  used  in  connection  with 
the  meetings  of  the  club.  The  advantage  of  the  second  club 
is  that  no  money  is  required.  The  teacher  can  select  which- 
ever seems  best  suited  to  the  locality  where  she  is  teaching. 
Except  with  the  very  young  children  it  is  well  to  elect 
officers  and  to  allow  the  children  to  assume  the  chief  respon- 
sibility for  the  work  of  the  club  under  the  supervision  of  the 
teacher. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  things  that  may  be  done  at  the 
meetings  of  the  club.  If  the  colored  plates  are  used  the 
children  may  color  some  of  the  outlines.  Any  one  of  these 
birds  may  be  taken  as  the  topic  of  the  meeting,  and  the 
pamphlet  and  other  references  studied  in  preparation,  dif- 
ferent children  being  assigned  topics  to  look  up.  About  a 
week  before  the  meeting  the  bird  to  be  studied  should  be 
announced,  so  that  the  children  may  be  watching  the  birds 
outdoors  and  report  what  they  have  seen.  A  meeting  may 
be  held  to  discuss  the  making  of  bird-houses,  and  at  another 
meeting  these  may  be  brought  together  and  compared.  A 
number  of  field  trips  should  be  taken  to  study  the  birds 
out  of  doors.  All  of  the  above  can  best  be  done  in  the 
spring.  In  the  autumn  nests  may  be  collected  and  studied. 
In  the  whiter  the  subject  of  winter  feeding  may  be  taken 
up. 

What  bird  clubs  may  do.  From  a  number  of  letters  pub- 
lished in  Bird-Lore  explaining  about  the  work  of  the  clubs, 
the  following  list  is  taken  of  the  things  which  were  done  by 
the  various  clubs :  — 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  BIRDS  57 

Prizes  offered  for  the  following:  — 

Best  bird-houses,  greatest  number  of  bird-houses  for  differ- 
ent birds,  longest  list  of  birds  identified  from  pictures,  best 
bird  records,  best  composition  showing  intimate  knowledge  o;' 
birds,  best  colored  drawing  of  some  bird,  prize  to  the  schoo 
or  room  having  the  largest  number  of  clippings  in  their  bird- 
clipping  book. 

Making  bird-houses,  feeding  devices,  and  fountains  for  the  home 
yard. 

Building  bird-houses  to  put  up  in  school  yard. 

Exhibition  of  bird-houses  open  to  the  public. 

Members  of  clubs  give  talks  to  children  in  other  buildings. 

Demonstration  of  tying  suet  to  branches  of  trees. 

Debates  on  such  questions  as,  "Should  the  crow  be  protected?" 

Providing  Christmas  trees  for  the  birds. 

Field  trips. 

Publication  of  a  paper  containing  articles  about  birds. 

Playing  bird  games. 

Spring  migration  records  of  birds  kept  by  club. 

Attending  illustrated  lecture  given  by  some  one  who  has  lan- 
tern slides. 

Meetings  of  bird  clubs.  The  following  are  the  suggestions 
for  meetings  as  given  in  the  Guide  of  the  Liberty  Bell  Bird 
Club:  — 

First.  Repeat  in  concert  the  pledge  of  the  Liberty  Bell  Bird 
Club. 

Second.  Members  report  all  the  different  varieties  of  birds  seen 
since  the  last  meeting.  This  report  to  be  written,  read,  and 
given  to  the  teacher  or  director  and  to  be  filed. 

Third.  Recitation  or  reading  —  a  bird  poem  or  a  bird  story. 
Many  good  ones  appear  from  time  to  time  in  the  Farm  Jour- 
nal's Bird  Club  page  and  elsewhere  in  the  paper. 

Fourth.  Members  report  what  they  have  observed,  and  all 
special  bird  work  done  by  them. 

Fifth.  Composition  on  one  of  the  articles  in  the  Bird  Club  page 
of  the  Farm  Journal.  Subject  to  be  given  by  the  teacher  or 
director. 

Skth.  Question  Box. 


58  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Seventh.  Work  outlined  by  teacher  or  director  for  the  following 

week. 
Eighth.  Adjournment. 

In  many  cases  enough  interest  is  aroused  so  that  the 
members  of  tlie  club  meet  during  the  summer  vacation  at 
the  homes  of  the  members. 

The  child's  activities.  One  of  the  most  effective  phases 
rf  nature-study  is  that  which  calls  into  play  the  manual  ac- 
iivities  of  the  child  in  providing  opportunities  himself  for 
making  a  study  of  the  life  about  him.  Bird-study  is  es- 
pecially well  adapted  to  make  use  of  these  activities  in 
building  nesting-houses,  in  feeding  the  winter  birds,  and  in 
providing  fountains.  The  very  fact  that  the  child  is  doing 
something  for  the  birds  is  a  means  of  developing  that 
helpful  sympathy  with  nature  which  may  prove  such  an 
important  factor  in  all  his  subsequent  life.  And,  further- 
more, excellent  opportunity  is  given  for  watching  the  birds 
that  may  come  in  response  to  the  attractions  offered. 
These  observations  will  be  carried  on  with  much  greater 
ardor  and  thoroughness  because  the  child  has  himself  helped 
to  furnish  the  conditions  which  make  his  observations 
possible. 

Nesting-houses.  Perhaps  there  is  no  one  line  of  work  that 
interests  the  children  so  much  as  the  making  of  bird-houses, 
especially  in  the  primary  and  intermediate  grades.  Even 
very  young  children  are  interested,  and  when  they  are  too 
small  to  make  the  houses  themselves,  some  one  of  the 
family  at  home  may  help  them.  The  houses  can  be  built 
at  home  or  in  the  manual-training  department.  Children 
may  be  asked  to  bring  materials,  and  then  some  one  may 
help  them  in  the  manual-training  shops.  Many  children 
will  be  interested  to  the  point  where  they  will  make  houses 
at  home.  As  an  added  incentive  they  may  be  asked  to  bring 
their  houses  to  school  on  a  certain  day,  so  that  a  picture  of 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  BIRDS  59 

the  children  with  their  houses  may  be  taken.  The  problems 
which  arise  in  connection  with  the  construction  and  location 
of  bird-houses  should  be  talked  over  with  the  children  and 
the  important  precautions  to  be  observed  explained  to 
them.  The  really  essential  features  having  been  made  clear, 
the  children  should  be  allowed  to  use  their  ingenuity  and 
individuality  about  arranging  details. 

If  the  school  building  is  favorably  situated,  houses  may 
be  put  up  in  the  school  yard.  If  these  are  occupied  oppor- 
tunity will  be  given  the  school  for  bird-study  at  close  range. 
It  would  be  well  worth  while  to  see  if  the  park  boards  would 
not  cooperate  with  the  schools,  so  that  the  children  might 
make  bird-houses  and  place  them  in  the  parks.  Such  a  plan 
was  carried  out  in  Jackson  and  Washington  Parks,  Chicago, 
where  the  children  made  several  hundred  wren  and  blue 
bird  houses. 

Difficulties.  The  children  should  understand  the  difficul- 
ties to  be  met,  so  as  to  avoid  undue  disappointment,  and 
should  be  prepared  to  overcome  them  as  far  as  possible. 
The  greatest  obstacle  of  all  is  the  English  sparrow.  One  of 
the  most  effective  devices  for  keeping  this  bird  out  of  the 
nesting-boxes  is  to  make  the  hole  so  small  that  the  sparrows 
cannot  enter,  but  large  enough  for  the  wren  and  the  chick- 
adee. With  houses  for  blue  birds  and  tree  swallows,  prob- 
ably the  most  effective  thing  which  the  children  can  do  is 
to  make  the  houses  so  that  the  tops  can  be  easily  lifted,  and 
then  to  remove  the  sparrows'  eggs  once  a  week  or  as  fast  as 
they  are  laid.  This  often  causes  the  sparrows  to  leave  the 
nesting-house.  If  nothing  else  can  be  done  the  entrance  can 
be  covered  or  the  house  taken  down  as  soon  as  it  is  evident 
that  no  other  bird  is  going  to  use  it.  This  will  prevent  the 
sparrows  from  rearing  their  young.  Of  course,  killing  the 
sparrows  cannot  be  recommended  to  children.  Whatever  is 
done  along  this  line  must  be  left  to  adults. 


60  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Feeding  the  winter  birds.  The  introductory  work  of  feed- 
ing the  winter  birds  should  be  done  in  the  late  fall.  A 
talk  on  the  food  of  birds  may  be  given,  so  as  to  bring  out 
the  two  classes  of  foods,  animal  and  vegetable.  The  kinds 
of  food  to  put  out  and  the  methods  of  putting  it  out  may  be 
discussed.  The  necessity  of  providing  a  constant  supply  of 
food  should  be  emphasized,  and  also  of  seeing  that  there  is 
R,  good  supply  immediately  after  a  snowstorm.  The  children 
aay  occasionally  be  reminded  of  the  feeding  so  that  they 
will  not  neglect  it  too  long.  The  possibility  of  taming  the 
birds  to  feed  from  the  hand  should  be  brought  to  the  chil- 
dren's attention.  The  construction  of  winter-feeding  devices 
may  be  made  a  part  of  the  manual-training  work.  While 
the  children  are  being  encouraged  to  feed  the  birds  at  home, 
a  lunch-counter  may  be  provided  in  the  school  yard,  if  the 
conditions  will  allow  it.  Committees  may  be  appointed 
among  the  children  to  see  that  the  counter  is  provided  with 
food. 

Field  trips.  There  is  but  one  way  to  know  the  birds,  and 
that  is  to  study  them  in  the  field.  In  the  schoolroom  the 
children  may  be  prepared  for  field  studies,  and  may  learn 
about  the  value  of  the  birds  and  how  to  protect  them,  but 
without  a  knowledge  of  the  birds  themselves  enthusiasm 
will  be  lacking. 

The  ordinary  class  of  thirty  to  forty  children  is  too  large 
for  the  teacher  to  attempt  a  field  trip  with  them  all,  but 
frequently  some  arrangement  may  be  made  with  the  prin- 
cipal by  which  half  of  the  class  may  be  taken  at  one  time. 
Sometimes  walks  may  be  taken  with  a  few  children  who  are 
especially  interested. 

Both  teacher  and  children  should  start  out  with  a  very 
definite  purpose  in  mind.  The  teacher  should  prepare  and 
plan  for  the  trip  very  carefully.  One  purpose  may  be  to  see 
how  many  kinds  of  birds  can  be  identified,  and  to  make  a 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  BIRDS  61 

list  of  them.  Another  purpose  may  be  to  make  a  special 
study  of  one  or  two  kinds  of  birds,  noting  the  size,  general 
colors,  song,  nesting-habits,  and  methods  of  locomotion. 

Whether  field  trips  with  the  children  are  taken  or  not, 
the  teacher  should  constantly  encourage  the  children,  when 
by  themselves  as  they  pass  to  and  from  school  and  when  at 
home,  to  study  the  birds  and  report  their  observations  to 
the  class. 

One  of  the  chief  purposes  of  the  field  trips  taken  by  the 
teacher  with  the  children  is  to  stimulate  them  to  observe 
birds  when  by  themselves. 

Bird  Day.  Bird  Day  is  observed  often  in  connection  with 
Arbor  Day.  Bird  Day  is  now  officially  recognized  in  nine 
States.  In  observing  this  day  one  special  feature  to  be  em- 
phasized is  doing  something  for  the  birds,  such  as  putting 
up  houses  at  home  or  in  the  school  yard.  The  program 
should  not  be  so  formal  as  to  obliterate  this  important 
feature. 

The  following  are  suggestions  for  a  few  general  lines 
of  work  that  may  be  carried  on:  — 

1.  Reading  of  proclamation. 

2.  Talk  by  some  one  outside  of  the  schools. 

3.  Talk  by  teacher. 

4.  Original  essays  by  children. 

5.  Reports  on  outdoor  observations. 

6.  Recitations  and  readings. 

7.  Dramatic  presentation. 

8.  Songs. 

9.  Putting  up  bird-houses  and  planting   shrubs  in  school  yard 
to  attract  birds. 

Correlation  with  other  subjects.  Bird-study  may  do 
much  to  aid  other  lines  of  school  work  and  may  also  itself 
be  made  more  interesting  by  proper  correlation.  Many 
opportunities  present  themselves  in  connection  with  several 


62  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

subjects,  especially  with  art  and  literature.  The  children 
may  make  outlines  of  birds  and  color  them,  as  explained  in 
previous  pages,  and  the  older  children  may  paint  the  birds 
free-hand  with  water-colors.  The  children  may  help  make 
artistic  decorations  for  the  bird  calendar.  A  large  amoun' 
of  splendid  literature  has  been  written,  and  this  should  forn. 
an  important  part  of  the  work  with  birds. 

Arithmetic  and  bird-study.  Some  problems  in  arithmetic 
relating  to  the  number  of  insects  eaten  by  birds,  the  number 
of  birds,  and  other  topics  may  be  given  the  children.  A  few 
are  here  suggested :  — 

A.  Problems  on  the  number  of  insects  eaten  by  nestlings. 

1.  A  pair  of  wrens  were  observed  to  feed  their  young  17  times 
in  an  hour.    The  parents  fed   their  young  from  5   A.M. 
till  8  P.M.,  and  the  young  remained  in  the  nest  15  days. 
Assuming  that  one  insect  was  brought  at  each  visit,  how 
many  insects  were  destroyed  by  this  brood  of  wrens? 

2.  Many  birds  on  the  average  feed  their  young  about  200 
times  a  day,  and  the  young  stay  in  the  nest  about  two 
weeks.   After  the  leaves  have  fallen,  count  the  number  of 
nests  in  a  certain  area  and  then  estimate  the  number  of 
insects  that  have  been  destroyed  by  the  birds  reared  in 
these  nests,  assuming  one  insect  brought  at  each  feeding. 

B.  Problems  on  amount  of  food  eaten  by  adult  birds. 

1.  A  study  made  of  owls  during  the  winter  months  showed 
that  they  destroyed  2  mice  a  day.   It  has  been  estimated 
that  each  mouse  does  damage  to  the  extent  of  2  cents  each 
year.  How  much  is  an  owl  worth  a  year? 

2.  A  study  made  by  the  Biological  Survey  of  the  red-shoul- 
dered hawk  showed  that  out  of  214  birds,  3  had  eaten 
poultry  and  102  had  eaten  mice.    What  per  cent  of  the 
birds  had  eaten  poultry  and  what  per  cent  mice? 

C.  Problems  on  the  number  of  birds. 

1.  A  census  made  of  birds  in  the  eastern  United  States 
showed  that  there  was  an  average  of  6  pairs  of  robins  to 
each  farm  of  58  acres.  There  are  about  4,000,000  farms 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  averaging  93  acres  each.  How 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  BIRDS  63 

many  robins  are  there  on  the  farms  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River? 

2.  This  census  also  showed  that  for  every  100  robins  there 
were  83  English  sparrows,  49  catbirds,  37  brown  thrashers, 
28  house  wrens,  27  kingbirds,  and  26   bluebirds.     How 
many  individuals  of  each  kind  of  birds  are  there  on  the 
farms  east  of  the  Mississippi  River? 

3.  This  census  also  showed  that  there  was  an  average  of  one 
pair  of  birds  per  acre.  How  many  birds  are  there  altogether 
on  the  farms  east  of  the  Mississippi  River? 

D.  Problems  on  migration. 

1.  The  robin  as  a  species  travels  from  Iowa  to  Alaska,  a  dis- 
tance of  3000  miles,  hi  78  days.  How  many  miles  does  the 
robin  average  to  travel  in  a  day? 

E.  Miscellaneous  problems. 

1.  A  study  of  hawks  made  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  showed  that  5  kinds  were  harmful,  7  kinds 
were  neutral,  and  35  kinds  were  beneficial.  What  per 
cent  of  the  hawks  respectively  are  harmful,  neutral,  and 
beneficial? 

Seasons  and  grades.  Most  of  the  bird  work  should  be 
done  in  the  spring,  excepting  a  few  lessons  in  the  winter  on 
winter  birds  and  their  feeding.  There  is  something  of  inter- 
est about  birds  for  every  grade.  The  younger  children  are 
interested  especially  in  the  bright  colors  and  in  learning  the 
names  of  birds.  The  children  in  the  intermediate  grades  are 
interested  in  the  same  things,  but  in  addition  they  show  a 
great  interest  in  the  manual  activities  involved  in  building 
bird-houses.  They  begin  to  show  some  appreciation  of  the 
economic  value  of  birds.  In  the  grammar  grades  this  eco- 
nomic aspect  may  be  strongly  emphasized  together  with 
the  subject  of  bird  protection. 

The  following  brief  outline  suggests  the  distribution  of 
a  few  topics  according  to  grades  and  seasons.  More  de- 
tailed suggestions  are  given  in  the  outline  in  Chapter 
XIX:  — 


Autumn 


Winter 


Spring 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 


Primary  grades      Intermediate  grades        Grammar  grades 


Nest  census 

Game  birds 

Fall  migration 

Feeding  birds 

Hawks  and  owls 

Economic    value   of 

birds 

Study    of    a    few 

Nesting-boxes 

Bird  enemies 

brightly  colored 

Bird  club 

Bird  protection 

birds 

Nesting-habits 

Bird  songs 

Calendar 

Calendar 

Bird  migration 

Recognition    of 

Study    of    common 

common  birds 

birds  not  taken  in 

lower  grades 

Series  of  lessons  on  birds.  The  three  groups  of  lessons 
here  given  are  type  lessons  for  the  primary,  intermediate, 
and  grammar  grades,  and  are  illustrative  of  what  may  be 
done  by  teachers. 


A.   Lessons  for  primary  grades 
TOPIC:  THE  BLUEBIBD  (SPRING) 
Materials :  Colored  picture  of  a  bluebird. 

Child's  problem. 

How  can  we  tell  the  bluebird  when  we  see  it? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Color. 

A,  on  back. 

B,  on  breast. 

2.  Size. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  watch  for  a  bluebird,  and  report  to  the  class 
the  first  one  they  see. 

Correlated  work. 

Art.  Have  the  children  color  outline  of  bluebird. 
Literature. 

Wiggin  and  Smith,  Po»y  Ring,  page  68. 
Wright,  Gray  Lady  and  the  Birds,  page  318. 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  BIRDS  65 

TOPIC:  WREN'S  HOUSE  (SPRING) 

Materials:  Picture  of  house  wren,  wren's  nest,  several  types  of 
wren  houses. 

Child's  problem. 

We  will  learn  to-day  what  kind  of  a  house  we  should  make  for  a 
pair  of  wrens  to  nest  in. 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Kinds  of  material  to  use. 

2.  Size  of  house. 

3.  Shape  of  house. 

4.  Entrance  hole. 

A.  Size. 

B.  Shape. 

C.  Location. 

5.  Provision  for  fastening. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  make  a  bird-house  at  home  and  then  bring  it 
to  school  so  all  can  see  it,  and  a  picture  may  be  taken  of  the 
children  with  their  bird-houses.  If  the  children  cannot  make 
the  house  themselves,  they  may  be  asked  to  bring  materials 
to  school  where  the  teacher  or  older  children  will  help  them. 

B.  Lessons  for  intermediate  grades 
TOPIC:  THE  WINTER  BIRDS 

Materials :  Samples  of  food  that  may  be  used,  such  as  grains,  nuts, 
etc. ;  a  few  simple  feeding  devices,  such  as  shelves,  hoppers,  and 
a  suet  basket. 

Child's  problem. 

How  can  we  help  the  birds  this  winter? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Kinds  of  food. 

2.  Methods  of  putting  it  out. 

3.  Birds  that  may  come. 

4.  Taming  birds  to  feed  from  hand. 

Application. 

Have  a  feeding-station  put  in  the  school  yard  and  food  pro- 
vided by  children.  Encourage  children  to  feed  the  birds  at 
their  homes  and  to  report  the  results. 


66  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Correlated  work. 
Manual  Training. 

Have  the  children  in  the  manual-training  department  make 
various  feeding-devices,  such  as  suet-baskets,  shelves,  hop- 
pers, moving  counters,  and  a  large  feedery  for  the  school  yard. 
Literature. 

McMurry  and  Cock,  Songs  of  Tree-Top  and  Meadow,  page  130. 
Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  pages  272,  273. 
Lovejoy,  Poetry  of  the  Seasons,  pages  278,  290,  317,  318. 
Wright,  Gray  Lady  and  the  Birds,  pages  27, 131, 187,  293,  300, 
301,  355. 

TOPIC:  IDENTIFICATION  OF  BIRDS  (A  REVIEW  LESSON) 

Child's  problem. 

What  are  the  most  common  colors  found  on  birds  by  which  we 
may  identify  them? 

Write  on  the  board  a  list  of  all  the  birds  the  children  know. 
Then  put  the  following  table  on  the  board  and  have  the  chil- 
dren fill  in  the  names  of  the  birds  in  the  proper  columns :  — 

Birds  marked  with 


Red 

Blue 

Yellow 

Brown 

Black 

Gray 

TOPIC:  WORK  OF  THE  AUDUBON  SOCIETIES 

Materials:  Samples  of  the  leaflets  published  by  the  Auduboi 
Societies;  a  November-December  issue  of  Bird-Lore,  which  con- 
tains the  annual  report  of  the  National  Association  of  Audubon 
societies. 

Child's  problem. 

What  are  the  Audubon  Societies  doing  to  protect  birds? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Legislation. 

2.  Wardens. 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  BIRDS  67 

3.  Lecturers. 

4.  Bird  reservations. 

5.  Publications. 

6.  Junior  Audubon  Societies. 

Application. 

Have  the  children  form  a  Junior  Audubon  Class  to  help  protect 
the  birds. 

C.  Lessons  for  the  grammar  grades 
TOPIC:  HAWKS  AND  OWLS 

Materials:  Pictures  of  hawks  and  owls  and  of  the  animals  they 
eat. 

Child's  problem. 

Should  hawks  and  owls  be  protected? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Beneficial  species. 

2.  Neutral  species. 

3.  Harmful  species. 

Application. 

Have  the  children  look  up  the  State  Law  to  see  which  hawks 
and  owls  are  protected.  Have  the  papers  watched  and  clip- 
pings made. 

Correlated  work. 
Literature. 

Burroughs,  Songs  of  Nature,  page  31. 

Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  page  232. 

Ingpen,  One  Thousand  Poems  for  Children,  page  229. 

Wright,  Gray  Lady  and  the  Birds,  pages  164,  170. 

TOPIC  :  WORK  OF  THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  PROTECTING 
BIRDS 

Materials :  Sample  of  bulletin  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Biologi- 
cal Survey,  map  showing  location  of  bird  reservations,  copy 
of  the  Migratory  Bird  Law. 

Child's  problem. 

What  is  the  National  Government  doing  to  protect  birds? 


68  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Work  of  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey. 

2.  Bird  reservations. 

3.  Law  protecting  migratory  birds. 

4.  Tariff  restrictions  on  feathers. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  watch  the  papers  for  items  concerning  an> 
of  the  above,  especially  number  3,  and  bring  the  clippings  to 
class. 


CHAPTER  VII 

TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  INSECTS 

Motivation.  Children  need  a  series  of  specific  aims  that 
shall  serve  to  motivate  their  work.  These  aims  must  be 
sought  in  the  part  that  insects  play  in  the  child's  life.  In- 
sects are  the  most  abundant  form  of  life  in  the  child's 
environment.  He  sees  them  at  every  turn.  His  first  interest 
then  is  to  become  familiar  with  a  few  of  the  common  forms, 
and  to  learn  something  of  their  life  activities,  how  they  eat, 
breathe,  and  move.  Another  point  of  contact  is  through 
flowers.  He  is  naturally  curious  to  know  what  the  insects 
are  doing  there. 

The  child's  gardening  experiences  form  another  avenue 
of  approach.  A  great  variety  of  insects  are  found  in  the 
garden.  The  child  wishes  to  know  what  relation  these 
insects  bear  to  his  garden.  In  some  cases  he  can  see  the 
harm  they  do,  and  he  wishes  to  know  how  to  control  them. 
In  the  case  of  beneficial  insects  the  relation  is  not  so  self- 
evident.  And  then  finally  such  pests  as  the  fly  and  the 
mosquito  are  abundant  everywhere,  and  the  child  is  inter- 
ested to  know  the  harm  they  do  and  what  he  can  do  to 
control  them. 

The  thought  of  using  what  one  learns  is  a  very  important 
factor  in  motivation.  The  best  kind  of  problem  is  one  whicl» 
from  its  very  nature  suggests  the  doing  of  something.  The 
application  for  the  study  of  common  insects  and  their 
activities  is  to  find  these  insects  and  observe  them  in  their 
natural  environment.  The  application  of  studies  of  injurious 
insects  is  to  observe  their  activities  and  the  harm  done  and 
to  apply  the  remedies  to  control  them.  If  a  child  is  too 


70  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

young  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  work  against  injurious 
insects,  he  may  observe  what  other  people  are  doing.  The 
application  of  the  study  of  beneficial  insects  is  to  recognize 
some  of  the  more  common  forms  when  one  sees  them,  and 
to  observe  the  good  they  do. 

The  children  may  make  collections  of  those  insects  which 
are  shown  to  bear  a  close  relation  to  their  life.  The  home 
and  school  life  may  be  brought  together  by  having  the  child 
talk  over  these  topics  at  home.  The  older  pupils  may  watch 
newspapers  and  magazines  for  clippings  regarding  insects. 

Materials  (cages  for  living  insects).  Living  insects  are 
easily  kept  in  the  schoolroom  in  some  simple  apparatus  pro- 
vided for  this  purpose.  One  of  the  simplest  outfits  is  a  glass 
canning-jar  or  tumbler,  with  netting  tied  over  the  top. 
Another  simple  form  is  made  by  cutting  a  large  hole  in  the 
cover  and  bottom  of  a  shoe-box,  and  covering  these  holes 
with  mosquito  netting.  A  string  is  tied  around  the  box  to 
keep  the  cover  on  and  the  box  set  on  edge;  or  a  hole  may  be 
cut  in  the  cover  alone.  This  has  the  advantage  of  conven- 
ience in  that  the  cover  may  be  easily  removed  in  order  to 
feed  the  insects. 

A  chalk-box  or  cigar-box  may  be  used  and  covered  with 
a  pane  of  glass.  A  very  satisfactory  combination  is  to  fill  a 
flower-pot  with  sand  and  to  place  on  this  a  lantern  globe 
with  a  piece  of  mosquito  netting  fastened  on  top,  or  a  pane 
of  glass  placed  across. 

The  cage  must  be  kept  clean,  and  the  insects  given  fresh 
food  every  day.  Sometimes  moist  dirt  or  a  sod  may  be  kept 
on  the  bottom  of  the  cage.  The  grass  in  the  sod  will  furnish 
food  for  some  insects.  When  possible  they  should  be  given 
the  same  kind  of  food  as  that  upon  which  they  are  found. 
If  one  does  not  know  the  food  of  the  insect,  grass  and  various 
kinds  of  leaves,  such  as  cherry,  may  be  tried.  Clusters  of 
leaves  may  be  kept  moist  by  placing  the  stems  in  a  bottle 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  INSECTS          71 

filled  with  moist  sand,  or  with  water  if  the  mouth  is  filled  so 
full  that  the  insects  cannot  creep  into  the  water. 

A  great  variety  of  insects  may  be  kept  in  these  cages, 
such  as  grasshoppers,  crickets,  caterpillars,  galls,  and  the 
various  insects  found  in  the  garden.  Water  insects  may  be 
kept  in  a  jar  filled  with  water. 

Insect  nets.  For  collecting  butterflies,  dragon-flies,  and 
other  swiftly  flying  insects  a  net  is  necessary.  One  can 
easily  be  made  by  the  children.  Procure  an  old  broom 
handle  and  a  piece  of  stiff  wire  about  four  feet  long.  Bend 
this  in  the  form  of  a  circle  about  a  foot  in  diameter,  crossing 
the  wires  about  six  inches  from  the  ends.  Give  them  two 
firm  twists.  Bend  each  wire  at  right  angles,  about  a  half- 
inch  from  the  twist,  so  that  the  two  ends  extend  parallel 
about  one  inch  apart.  Place  these  two  wires  over  one  end 
of  the  broom  handle  and  fasten  one  on  each  side  of  the  handle 
by  means  of  wire  or  heavy  string. 

Around  the  wire  stitch  a  narrow  border  of  sheeting,  two 
or  three  inches  wide.  Make  a  net  about  thirty  inches  long 
out  of  cotton  tulle  or  light  cheesecloth.  Sew  this  into  a  round 
bag  at  the  bottom  and  attach  the  top  to  the  border  of  the 
cloth  on  the  wire.  Mosquito  netting  may  be  used,  but  it  is 
easily  torn.  The  net  should  be  at  least  twice  as  long  as  the 
diameter  of  the  wire,  so  that  when  insects  are  caught  in  it, 
they  may  be  imprisoned  by  a  quick  turn  of  the  handle.  One 
way  to  collect  insects  is  to  beat  the  top  of  grass  back  and 
forth  with  the  net,  when  one  will  catch  many  insects  that 
had  not  previously  been  seen. 

Collections.  The  older  children  may  make  insect  collec- 
tions. For  this  purpose  a  cyanide  bottle  is  needed  for  killing 
the  insects,  and  some  device  for  mounting  them.  The  author 
believes  that  the  best  plan  for  school  use  is  the  one  described 
in  chapter  IV  of  Hodge's  Nature-Study  and  Life,  to  which 
the  reader  is  referred. 


72  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Calendar.  One  way  of  stimulating  the  observation  of  the 
children  is  to  keep  an  insect  calendar  in  the  spring.  In  its 
simplest  form  it  may  consist  of  the  following  columns :  — 


Name  of  insect 

Date  first  seen 

Child  first  reporting 

If  desired,  other  points  may  be  added,  such  as  place 
where  seen,  date  when  abundant,  and  kind  of  food. 

Correlation  (arithmetic).  Insect  study  may  be  correlated 
with  arithmetic,  drawing,  and  literature.  The  following  are 
given  as  suggesting  the  possibilities  of  insect  problems :  — 

1.  A  mosquito  lays  about  200  eggs,  and  under  favorable  condi- 
tions these  may  develop  into  adult  mosquitoes  in  10  days.  If 
one  half  of  these  eggs  develop  into  females,  each  of  whicji  lays 
200  eggs,  how  many  mosquitoes  would  there  be  at  the  end 
of  a  month  if  all  lived? 

2.  A  young  American  silkworm  of  the  polyphemus  moth  which 
had  just  hatched  was  weighed  and  found  to  weigh  one  twen- 
tieth of  a  grain;  when  30  days  old,  31  grains;  when  56  days 
old,  207  grains.     How  many  times  its  first  weight  was  its 
weight  at  each  of  these  days? 

3.  During  these  56  days  it  consumed  three  fourths  of  a  pound 
of  leaves.   How  many  times  greater  was  this  than  its  original 
weight?   Than  its  weight  when  56  days  old? 

4.  An  average  locust  weighs  about  15  grains  and  is  capable  of 
consuming  each  day  its  own  weight  of  standing  crops,  such 
as  corn  and  wheat.     Assuming  that  these  crops  are  worth 
$10  a  ton,  and  that  there  is  1  grasshopper  to  every  square 
yard,  how  much  damage  do  the  grasshoppers  do  in  a  day  on 
each  acre?  How  much  damage  to  the  wheat  and  corn  crop  of 
Minnesota  in  which  State  about  7,000,000  acres  are  planted 
to  these  crops? 

5.  The  United  States  Bureau  of  Entomology  has  made  the  fol' 
lowing  estimate  of  the  per  cent  of  damage  done  to  crops  by 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  INSECTS          73 

insects.  Work  out  the  money  loss  in  the  last  column  for  each 
crop  and  the  total :  — 


Product 
Cereals     

Values 
$3,000,000,000 

Percentage 
of  loss 
10 

Amount 
of  loss 

Hay  and  forage 
Cotton 

665,000,000 
850,000,000 

10 
10 

Tobacco         

100,000,000 

10 

Truck  crops  

300,000,000 

20 

Sugars  

95,000,000 

10 

Fruits 

150  000,000 

20 

Farm  forests   

110,000,000 

10 

Miscellaneous  crops  . 
Total  

3,000,000,000 

10 

6.  Bring  a  grasshopper  into  the  schoolroom.  Measure  the  length 
of  its  body.  Measure  the  distance  and  the  height  the  grass- 
hopper jumps.  How  many  times  its  own  length  are  these 
distances?  If  a  boy  could  jump  as  far  in  proportion  to  his 
height  as  a  grasshopper,  how  far  and  how  high  could  he  jump? 

Correlation  (art).  Paper  cuttings  may  be  made  of  some 
of  the  larger  insects.  Colored  drawings  may  be  made  of 
moths  and  butterflies,  either  with  crayon  or  with  water- 
colors.  Or  these  may  be  cut  free-hand  first  and  then  colored. 
When  cocoons  are  kept  in  the  room  and  the  moths  emerge, 
a  good  opportunity  is  afforded  for  this  kind  of  work.  Charts 
may  be  made  of  pictures  and  the  children's  own  work  in 
illustrating  insect  groups.  The  older  children  may  make 
outline  drawings  of  the  insects  studied,  and  paint  the  but- 
terflies and  moths  in  water-colors. 

Grades  and  seasons.  There  is  something  of  interest  about 
insects  for  every  grade,  so  that  the  study  may  extend  all 
the  way  through  the  grades.  The  best  time  for  most  of  the 
insect  study  is  the  autumn,  because  insect  life  is  so  abun- 
dant at  that  time.  The  study  of  the  fly  and  mosquito  may 
be  taken  up  in  the  spring,  because  this  is  the  best  time  to 


74 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 


take  measures  to  control  them.  If  collections  of  materials 
are  made  in  the  autumn,  such  studies  as  cocoons,  galls,  and 
wasp's  nests  may  be  taken  up  in  the  winter. 

The  following  brief  outline  suggests  the  work  adapted 
to  the  different  grades  and  seasons.  Detailed  suggestions 
are  found  in  the  outline  at  the  end  of  the  book:  — 

Season         Primary  grades        Intermediate  Grades      Grammar  Grades 


Autumn 

Grasshoppers 

Insect  activities 

Pests  of  household 

Crickets 

How   they   eat, 

Enemies  of  garden 

breathe,    and 

move 

Caterpillars 

Social  insects 

Friends  of  garden 

Mosquitoes 

Water  insects 

Insects  and  flowers 

Insect  homes 

Spring 

Butterflies 

Fly  and  mosquito 

Moths 

Series  of  lessons  on  insects 

A.  For  primary  grades 
TOPIC:  GRASSHOPPERS  (AUTUMN) 

Materials:  Keep  grasshoppers  in  a  breeding  cage,  as  described 
in  the  first  part  of  chapter,  and  feed  every  day  with  fresh  grass. 
Let  one  grasshopper  escape  into  the  room,  so  as  to  watch  it 
jump  and  fly.  Have  some  of  the  children  see  how  far  and 
how  high  they  can  jump.  Then  compare  with  the  distance  the 
grasshopper  jumps. 

Child's  problem.. 

We  will  watch  these  grasshoppers  to  see  how  they  move. 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Jumping. 

2.  Crawling. 

3.  Flying. 

4.  Organs  used: 

A.  How  used. 

B.  Structure. 

a.  Difference  between  wings. 

b.  Difference  between  legs. 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  INSECTS  75 

Application. 

Ask  children  to  watch  grasshoppers  out  of  doors,  and  notice 
which  method  of  moving  they  see  the  grasshopper  use  the 
most. 

Correlated  work. 
Literature. 

Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  page  139. 

Other  lessons  may  be  given  on  how  the  grasshopper  cleans  itself, 
eats,  and  breathes. 

TOPIC:  GALLS  (AUTUMN) 

Materials:  A  collection  of  a  number  of  common  galls,  such  as  can 
be  found  on  the  goldenrods,  willows,  and  oaks.  Cut  a  section 
through  one  of  each  kind. 

Child's  problem. 

What  kind  of  homes  do  the  gall-dwellers  live  in? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Plants  on  which  found. 

2.  Parts  of  plants  on  which  found. 
8.  Material  of  which  made. 

4.  How  made. 

5.  Differences  in  galls. 

A.  In  shape. 

B.  In  size. 

C.  In  color. 

D.  In  internal  structure. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  look  for  galls  during  the  following  week  and 
see  who  can  bring  the  most  kinds  to  school.  Have  a  school 
collection  of  galls  made. 

B.  Lessons  for  intermediate  grades 
TOPIC:  INSECT  ACTIVITIES  (AUTUMN) 

Materials:  Some  water  insects,  such  as  the  backswimmer,  kept 
in  a  tumbler  of  water,  a  living  grasshopper,  butterfly,  and  bee- 
tle. The  grasshopper  possesses  the  biting  mouth  parts  and 


76  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

the  method  of  using  them  may  be  shown  by  feeding  it  grass. 
The  butterfly  possesses  the  sucking  mouth  part,  and  its  action 
may  be  shown  by  placing  the  butterfly  on  a  bouquet  of  flowers. 
The  motions  of  breathing  may  be  seen  in  the  abdomen  of  the 
grasshopper.  The  grasshopper  illustrates  three  types  of  loco- 
motion, jumping,  crawling,  and  flying,  using  one  pair  of  wings. 
The  butterfly  illustrates  flying,  using  both  pairs  of  wings.  The 
backswimmer  illustrates  swimming.  The  beetle  illustrates  run- 
ning. 

Child's  problem. 

How  do  insects  eat,  breathe,  and  move? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Eating. 

A.  Comparison  of  grasshopper  and  butterfly. 
a.  Kind  of  food. 
6.  Method  of  obtaining  it. 
c.  Structure  of  mouth  parts. 

2.  Breathing. 

A.  Motion  of  abdomen  of  grasshopper. 

B.  Number  of  breaths  in  a  minute  —  compare  with  child. 

C.  Number  and  location  of  breathing  pores. 

3.  Moving. 

A.  Jumping. 

B.  Crawling  and  running. 

C.  Swimming. 

D.  Flying  (differences  between  grasshoppers  and  butter- 
flies.) 

E.  Organs  used. 

a.  Method  of  using  them. 

b.  Structure. 

c.  Differences  between   wings   of   grasshopper  and 
butterfly. 

d.  Differences  between  legs  of  grasshopper  and  of 
backswimmer. 

Application. 

Put  the  following  tables  on  the  board  and  have  the  children  fill 
in  with  as  many  insects  as  they  can,  as  the  result  of  continued 
observation. 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  INSECTS 


77 


Methods  of  locomotion  among  insects 


Flying 

Jumping 

Running  or 
walking 

Surimming 

TOPIC:  WATER  INSECTS 

Materials:  Water  strider,  whirligig-beetle,  glass  dish.  These  and 
other  water  insects  may  be  collected  with  an  ordinary  insect 
net,  or  with  a  handled  strainer  with  wire  on  the  bottom,  such  as 
is  found  in  the  kitchen.  These  insects  may  be  kept  several  days 
without  feeding.  If  desired  to  keep  longer,  feed  with  flies  or 
raw  meat.  Perform  the  experiment  of  floating  a  needle  on  water. 

Child's  problem. 
How  do  some  insects  live  on  the  surface  of  the  water? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Method  of  floating. 

A.  Compare  with  needle. 

B.  Shadow  of  water  strider. 

2.  Method  of  moving. 

3.  Breathing  of  whirligig-beetle  below  water. 

4.  Differences  between  the  beetle  and  strider. 

Application. 

Have  the  children  watch  streams  or  ponds  and  report  where  they 
find  these  insects. 

C.  Lessons  for  grammar  grades 
TOPIC:  THE  MOSQUITO 

Materials:  Water  stages  of  mosquito  in  glass  tumblers  covered  with 
netting;  kerosene,  goldfish,  tadpoles.  The  wigglers  may  first  be 
studied  to  learn  their  habits.  Then  experiments  in  extermina- 
tion may  be  tried.  Place  a  counted  number  of  wigglers  in  a  jar 
with  a  fish.  Note  how  long  a  time  elapses  before  they  are  all 
eaten. 


78  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

In  another  dish  place  some  wigglers  with  a  tadpole. 

Try  various  kinds  of  water  insects  with  the  wigglers. 

In  another  tumbler  covered  with  netting  and  containing 
larvae,  pupae,  and  adults  pour  a  few  drops  of  kerosene  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  and  note  results. 

Child's  problem. 
What  may  be  done  to  get  rid  of  the  mosquito? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Life  history  of  mosquito. 

A.  Larvae. 

a.  Method  of  breathing. 
6.  Method  of  moving. 
c.  Position  when  at  rest. 

B.  Pupae. 

a.  Compare  with  larvae  in  the  three  points  given 
above. 

C.  Adult. 

a.  Note  resting  position. 

b.  Compare  male  and  female. 

c.  Mouth  parts. 

2.  Destruction  and  control  of  mosquito. 

A.  Natural  enemies. 

a.  Fish. 

b.  Tadpoles. 

c.  Water  insects. 

d.  Spiders. 

B.  Kerosene  on  water. 

C.  Destroy  breeding-places. 

D.  Cover  breeding-places. 

Application. 

Have  the  children  search  the  neighborhood  to  find  places  where 
mosquitoes  are  breeding.  Have  a  map  made  of  the  neighbor- 
hood to  show  the  location  of  these  breeding-places.  Then 
have  a  campaign  started  by  the  children  to  prevent  the  mos- 
quitoes from  breeding,  either  (1)  by  putting  oil  on  surface  of 
pools;  (2)  by  covering  rain  barrels;  (3)  by  filling  or  draining 
pools;  (4)  by  seeing  that  cans  in  dump  heaps  are  turned  bot- 
tom side  up,  or  crushed. 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  INSECTS          79 


TOPIC:  THE  HOUSE-FLY  (SPRING) 

In  the  late  winter  or  early  spring  start  a  campaign  of  trapping 
the  early  flies.  Send  five  cents  in  stamps  for  a  fly-trap  pattern  to  the 
International  Harvester  Company,  Harvester  Building,  Chicago, 
Illinois.  This  gives  detailed  directions  for  making  a  fly-trap  so  that 
a  child  can  do  it.  For  fifty  cents  there  may  be  obtained  from  the 
same  company  a  set  of  about  ten  stencils,  three  feet  square,  of  the 
house-fly,  giving  drawings  that  may  be  reproduced  on  the  black- 
board, on  paper,  or  on  cloth,  which  may  be  kept  as  permanent 
charts.  Directions  accompany  these  stencils  showing  the  use  that 
can  be  made  of  them. 


TOPIC:  THE  LADY  BEETLE 

Materials:  Secure  the  adult  and  larva  of  the  lady  beetle  and  keep 
it  in  a  breeding-cage.  The  larva  may  be  found  on  almost  any 
plant  infested  with  plant  lice.  Bring  in  a  piece  of  plant  with  the 
lice  and  larva  on  it,  and  place  the  end  in  a  bottle  filled  with 
moist  sand.  These  lice  are  the  food  of  both  the  larva  and  the 
adult  beetle.  When  these  are  all  eaten  others  should  be  brought 
in.  In  this  connection  the  harm  done  by  the  lice  may  be  studied. 

Child's  problem. 
How  is  the  lady  beetle  beneficial? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  The  larvae. 

A.  Appearance. 

B.  Method  of  feeding. 

C.  Comparison  of  pupse  with  larvae. 

2.  The  adult. 

A.  Appearance. 

B.  Method  of  feeding. 

C.  Comparison  with  larvae. 

D.  Method  of  flight. 

E.  Method  of  protection. 

3.  The  lice. 

A.  Their  appearance. 

B.  Method  of  feeding. 

C.  Harm  done. 


80  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Application. 

Have  the  children  watch  the  house  plants  at  home  for  these 
beetles  to  see  what  they  are  doing;  also  watch  plants  outdoors 
to  find  colonies  of  plant  lice  with  the  beetles  and  larva  among 
them. 

Correlated  work. 
Literature. 

Ingpen,  One  Thousand  Poems  for  Children,  page  203. 
Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  pages  168,  169. 


TOPIC:  SPIDERS  (AUTUMN) 

(Spiders  are  not  insects,  but  they  are  closely  related  to  them  and 
will  be  taken  up  in  this  connection.) 

Materials :  If  the  class  is  taken  for  a  field  trip,  webs  for  study  may 
be  easily  found;  or  a  web  may  be  studied  indoors.  A  web  and 
spider  may  be  found  on  a  branch  which  may  be  brought  into  the 
schoolroom,  and  the  branch  stuck  into  earth  in  a  flower-pot. 
Or  a  spider  alone  may  be  placed  in  a  large  breeding-cage  with  a 
few  stems  of  plants  to  which  it  may  attach  its  web.  The  spider 
may  spin  its  web  here. 

Child's  problem. 
How  is  the  web  of  an  orb  weaver  made? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Position  of  web. 

2.  Parts  of  web  (radii,  spiral  and  guy  lines). 

3.  Two  kinds  of  thread. 

A.  Difference  in  elasticity  and  adhesiveness. 

B.  Parts  of  web  made  of  each  kind. 

4.  Position  of  spider  in  web. 

5.  Method  of  catching  insects.   (Throw  some  insects,  such  as  a 
fly,  into  the  web.) 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  watch  for  spiders'  webs  and  note  the  kinds 
of  insects  that  they  find  in  them,  or  note  the  different  places 
where  they  find  the  webs. 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  ABOUT  INSECTS          81 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  drawings  made  of  the  web,  either  on  the  board  or  on 
paper  at  the  seats.  Cuttings  of  webs  may  be  made  by  the 
younger  children. 
Literature. 

Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  pages  147,  222. 

McMurry  and  Cook,  Songs  of  Tree-Top  and  Meadow,  page  158. 

Ingpen,  One  Thousand  Poems  for  Children,  page  208. 

Other  lessons  may  be  given  on  a  funnel  web  and  cobweb,  and 
on  a  jumping,  a  running,  and  a  flying  spider,  and  on  the  nests  in 
which  the  eggs  are  placed. 


CHAPTER  Vin 

PETS  AND  DOMESTICATED  ANIMALS  (FOR  PRIMARY 
GRADES) 

THE  care  of  a  pet  is  a  splendid  experience  that  every 
child  should  have.  In  caring  for  his  pet  he  develops  a  sense 
of  responsibility  and  the  need  of  doing  certain  things  at 
regular  times.  Through  this  care  he  comes  to  develop  a 
friendly  feeling  for  his  pet  and  this  gives  him  a  more  thought- 
ful feeling  toward  all  animal  life.  And  finally  the  child 
derives  much  pleasure  from  association  with  his  pets  through 
play  and  other  means. 

The  studies  made  of  pets  may  be  carried  on  in  two  places; 
at  home  and  in  the  schoolroom.  Pets  may  be  kept  in  a  cage 
in  the  schoolroom  where  their  habits  may  be  studied,  and 
points  may  be  given  for  the  children  to  observe  in  their 
pets  at  home.  Such  pets  as  the  dog  and  the  cat  may  be 
brought  each  day  when  needed,  by  the  various  children  for 
a  day  only.  Such  pets  as  the  rabbit  and  the  squirrel  may  be 
kept  in  a  cage  in  the  schoolroom  for  several  weeks.  A  cage 
may  easily  be  made  from  a  large  box  and  some  inch-mesh 
galvanized  wire  netting.  This  is  better  than  mosquito  net- 
ting. Some  sawdust  or  dry  dirt  may  be  spread  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cage.  In  order  to  avoid  offensive  odors,  the  ani- 
mals should  be  fed  on  dry  foods  such  as  oats,  corn,  bread 
crust,  nuts,  and  an  occasional  piece  of  some  green  stuff  such 
as  grass  or  lettuce.  A  pan  of  drinking-water  should  be  kept 
in  the  cage.  The  cage  should  be  kept  clean.  Another  pet 
that  can  easily  be  kept  in  the  schoolroom  is  the  canary. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  the  cat  the  children  should 


PETS  AND  DOMESTICATED  ANIMALS  83 

be  taught  how  they  can  care  for  their  cat  so  as  to  lessen  as 
far  as  possible  the  harm  it  does  in  killing  birds.  Most  of  this 
harm  is  done  to  young  birds  in  the  spring  and  early  sum- 
mer, during  the  nesting  season.  Hence  children  should  be 
taught  to  take  special  care  of  their  cats  during  this  season. 
The  most  harm  is  done  during  the  early  morning.  During 
the  nesting  season  of  birds,  cats  should  be  shut  up,  espe- 
cially at  night  and  during  the  early  morning;  and  at  all 
times  should  be  well  fed,  so  that  they  will  not  have  hunger 
added  to  their  natural  instinct  as  a  stimulus  to  catch  birds. 
The  children  should  be  taught  that  it  is  a  cruel  thing  to  the 
cat  to  abandon  it  when  leaving  their  summer  homes  as  so 
many  people  do. 

Series  of  lessons  on  pets 

In  order  to  show  the  possibility  of  a  series  of  lessons  on 
one  animal  the  three  following  lessons  on  the  dog  are  given, 
based  on  an  outline  furnished  the  author  by  Miss  Helen 
M.  Reynolds,  Principal  of  the  Primary  Department  of  the 
Training  School  at  Mankato,  Minnesota. 

TOPIC:  KINDS  OF  DOGS 
Materials:  Pictures  of  dogs. 

Child's  problem. 

How  many  different  kinds  of  dogs  are  there? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Pointers. 

2.  Hunters. 

3.  Hounds. 

4.  Spaniels. 

5.  Shepherd  dogs. 

6.  Eskimo  dogs. 

7.  St.  Bernard  dogs. 

8.  Differences  in  appearances. 

9.  Differences  in  uses. 


84  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  look  carefully  at  all  the  dogs  they  see  and 
try  to  tell  what  kind  each  one  is.  Report  to  the  class  what 
they  have  seen.  Make  a  list  on  the  board  of  all  the  kinds  that 
the  children  can  find  in  town. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Cuttings  may  be  made  of  different  kinds  of  dogs  and  of  a  dog 
in  different  positions;  and  a  chart  made  to  show  the  differ- 
ent kinds.  Model  in  clay  some  of  the  different  kinds  of 
dogs. 

TOPIC:  USES  OF  DOGS 
Child's  problem. 

In  how  many  ways  is  a  dog  useful? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  To  the  grown-up  people. 

A.  Hunting. 

B.  Herding  sheep  or  cattle. 

C.  Protecting  children. 

D.  Watching  the  house. 

E.  Performing  labor. 

a.  Turning  chum. 

b.  Drawing  loads. 

F.  Find  lost  travelers  in  Alps. 

G.  Used  as  horses,  Eskimo  dogs. 
H.  As  companions. 

2.  To  the  children. 

A.  As  a  playfellow. 

a.  Sports  in  which  dogs  join. 

b.  Tricks  played  by  dogs. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  notice  all  the  helpful  things  they  see  dogs 
doing  between  now  and  the  next  lesson,  and  report  to 
class. 

Correlated  work. 
Literature. 

Ingpen,  One  Thousand  Poems  for  Children,  pages  213,  214. 


PETS  AND  DOMESTICATED  ANIMALS  85 

TOPIC:  CARE  OF  DOGS 

Materials :  A  dog  may  be  kept  in  the  schoolroom  so  as  to  watch  its 
manner  of  eating. 

Child's  problem. 

How  may  I  take  the  best  care  of  my  dog  so  he  will  be  healthy 
and  happy? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Food. 

A.  Kind  of  teeth. 

B.  Kinds  of  food  needed. 

C.  Number  of  meals  in  a  day. 

2.  Water. 

3.  Shelter. 

4.  Baths. 

5.  Protection  from  fleas. 

6.  Kindness. 

Application. 

Find  out  what  care  the  children  are  giving  their  dogs,  and  if  any 
are  not  giving  the  proper  care,  encourage  them  to  do  so, 
specifying  what  they  should  do. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  dog  kennel  made  out  of  paper. 

TOPIC:  THE  CAT 

Materials:  A  cat  may  be  kept  for  a  while  in  the  schoolroom  where 
its  habits  may  be  watched,  and  observations  may  be  made  by 
the  children  at  home. 

Child's  problem. 

To  what  extent  can  cats  take  care  of  themselves. 

Outline  of  development. 
1.  Obtaining  food. 

A.  Kinds  of  food. 

B.  How  found  —  keenness  of  senses. 

C.  How  caught. 

a.  Method  of  walking  and  springing. 

b.  Use  of  claws. 


86  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

2.  Protection. 

A.  From  enemies. 

a.  Keen  senses. 

b.  Claws. 

c.  Running  away. 

B.  From  cold  weather. 

a.  Fur. 

b.  Finding  sheltered  spot. 

3.  Cleanliness. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  watch  cats  and  see  to  what  extent  they  are 
taking  care  of  themselves  without  help  from  man. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Children  may  make  free-hand  cuttings  of  cat  or  model  one 
in  clay. 
Literature. 

Ingpen,  One  Thousand  Poems  for  Children,  page  211. 
McMurry  and  Cook,  Songs  of  Tree-Top  and  Meadow,  pages 
52,  294. 

TOPIC:  THE  Cow 

Materials:  Samples  of  the  products  obtained  from  cows,  such  as 
cheese,  butter,  leather,  gelatine,  some  milk  which  has  been 
standing  long  enough  for  the  cream  to  rise.  It  interests  the  chil- 
dren to  make  some  butter  in  the  schoolroom.  To  do  this,  put 
some  sour  cream  into  a  quart  Mason  jar  and  screw  on  the  top 
tightly.  Pass  it  around  and  allow  each  child  to  shake  it  till 
the  butter  forms.  Remove  the  lumps,  wash  in  cold  water,  then 
mix  it  till  the  water  is  squeezed  out.  Add  a  little  salt.  Crack- 
ers may  be  provided  and  spread  with  butter  and  the  children 
may  have  a  little  lunch. 

Child's  problem. 

In  what  ways  is  the  cow  useful  to  us? 

Outline  of  development. 
1.  Milk. 

A.  Use  uncooked. 


PETS  AND  DOMESTICATED  ANIMALS  87 

a.  Use  of  whole  milk  for  drinking,  cereals,  etc. 
6.  Products  from  milk. 

(1)  Cream. 

(2)  Butter. 

(3)  Cheese. 

(4)  Uses  of  each. 

B.  Use  of  milk  in  cooking. 

C.  Forms  in  which  kept  for  a  long  time. 

a.  Evaporated. 

b.  Condensed. 

c.  Dried. 

2.  Meat. 

A.  Steaks. 

B.  Roasts. 

C.  Stews. 

3.  Leather. 

A.  Shoes. 

B.  Harnesses. 

C.  Miscellaneous  uses. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  observe  during  a  day  the  things  they  use, 
and  notice  how  many  of  them  come  from  the  cow.  In  the 
grammar  grades,  especially  in  the  country,  the  Babcock  test 
may  be  demonstrated. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Draw  or  make  free-hand  cuttings  of  cow,  or  model  one  in 

clay.    Make  a  chart  of  a  "Barnyard  scene,"  or  make  it  on  a 

sand  table. 
Literature. 

McMurry  and  Cook,  Songs  of  Tree-Top  and  Meadow,  page  86. 

Wiggin  and  Smith,  Posy  Ring,  page  114.   / 


CHAPTER  IX 

LESSONS  ON  TREES 

Motivation  of  tree-study.  In  many  ways  trees  are  the 
most  satisfactory  topics  to  take  up  in  nature-study.  They 
are  common,  large,  beautiful,  easy  of  access,  always  avail- 
able all  the  year  round,  and  they  pass  through  an  interest- 
ing series  of  changes  from  season  to  season.  The  children 
have  many  interesting  experiences  with  trees  which  serve 
as  a  foundation  for  the  work  to  be  done.  Trees  furnish 
shade  in  the  hot  weather,  the  tree  is  the  center  of  the  Christ- 
mas festivities,  in  the  autumn  children  play  in  the  fallen 
leaves,  they  like  to  climb  trees  and  build  houses  in  their 
branches,  and  in  the  autumn  they  go  nutting.  The  boys  in 
manual  training  enjoy  the  use  of  tools  with  wood.  All  these 
activities  furnish  an  abundance  of  experiences  with  which 
the  school  work  can  be  linked. 

Children  delight  in  bright  colors,  and  in  the  autumn  work 
with  the  colored  leaves  appeals  strongly  to  the  young  chil- 
dren. The  desire  to  know  the  names  of  the  trees  is  present. 
The  collecting  instinct  may  be  appealed  to  throughout 
all  the  grades  in  collecting  leaves  or  specimens  of  woods. 
Many  games  with  leaves  may  be  devised  for  the  primary 
grades,  as  suggested  on  page  92. 

The  use  of  these  lessons  in  the  child's  life  may  be  sug- 
gested by  encouraging  him  to  find  growing  outdoors  the 
trees  studied,  and  to  bring  leaves  to  the  class  or  to  report 
where  the  tree  was  seen  growing.  A  map  may  be  made  of  a 
certain  section  near  the  school  and  all  the  trees  growing 
there  marked  on  it  and  named.  The  children  may  be  asked 
to  observe  the  shade  trees  to  see  if  they  are  receiving  proper 


LESSONS  ON  TREES  89 

attention,  with  reference  to  pruning  and  protection.  They 
may  be  encouraged  to  talk  over  the  topic  of  the  lesson  with 
their  parents  and  friends,  and  report  what  they  learn.  The 
older  children  may  be  asked  to  watch  the  newspapers  and 
magazines  for  references  to  forest  fires,  and  other  items 
regarding  trees  and  forests.  These  clippings  may  be  cut 
out  and  brought  to  school  and  posted  in  an  area  reserved 
for  this  purpose. 

Materials.  A  great  abundance  of  material  may  easily  be 
obtained.  In  the  autumn,  when  the  leaves  begin  to  fall,  they 
may  be  secured  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  each  pupil 
with  material.  At  this  same  season  many  fruits  of  trees, 
such  as  acorns  and  nuts,  can  be  obtained.  During  and  just 
after  the  Christmas  season  branches  of  various  kinds  of 
evergreens  may  be  secured.  During  the  winter  twigs  of 
trees  may  be  brought  into  the  schoolroom.  In  the  early 
spring  twigs  may  be  brought  indoors  and  forced  to  develop 
earlier  by  placing  in  water.  It  is  well  to  cut  off  about  a  half- 
inch  from  the  lower  end  of  the  twigs  every  week  or  two. 
The  best  twigs  to  select  for  this  purpose  are  those  that  open 
quickly  and  have  large  parts,  such  as  the  horse-chestnut, 
lilac,  pussy-willow,  and  fruit  trees.  In  the  spring  flowers  of 
trees  may  be  secured.  Those  which  have  conspicuous  flow- 
ers, such  as  fruit  trees,  locusts,  horse-chestnut,  and  catalpa, 
are  better  adapted  for  this  purpose  for  the  primary  grades. 
For  the  older  children  the  less  conspicuous  flowers  of  other 
trees  may  be  obtained.  The  fruits  of  the  elms  and  white 
and  red  maples  may  be  obtained  during  the  spring  term. 

Collections.  Children  are  interested  in  making  collec- 
tions. One  may  be  made  showing  how  trees  scatter  seeds. 
In  the  grammar  grades  collections  can  be  made  of  the 
different  kinds  of  woods  used  in  carpentry,  and  of  small 
limbs  of  trees  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter.  These 
specimens  may  be  neatly  cut  up  into  uniform  sizes,  and  the 


90  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

cut  surfaces  polished  to  show  the  structure.  Cuts  may  be 
made  to  show  cross,  tangential,  and  radial  sections.  These 
specimens  may  be  kept  loose  or  mounted  in  a  frame. 

Collections  of  leaves.  Collections  of  leaves  are  easily 
made,  and  the  gathering  and  labeling  of  the  specimens  lead 
to  identification  of  the  trees.  These  collections  may  be 
made  in  three  ways:  first,  by  pressing  and  mounting  the 
leaves;  second,  by  waxing  and  ironing  the  leaves;  third,  by 
making  blue  prints.  The  fall  is  the  best  time  to  make  these 
collections,  as  the  leaves  may  be  gathered  when  they  begin 
to  show  their  autumn  colors. 

Pressing  leaves.  In  order  to  press  the  leaves  secure  two 
pieces  of  board  about  a  foot  long  and  eight  or  nine  inches 
wide,  old  newspapers,  and  a  heavy  weight,  such  as  a  stone. 
The  leaves  are  placed  between  the  folds  of  a  newspaper, 
several  leaves  to  one  piece.  These  papers  are  put  one  on 
top  of  the  other  with  extra  folds  of  paper  between,  so  as  to 
absorb  the  moisture.  This  pile  of  papers  is  arranged  on  one 
of  the  boards,  the  other  board  is  set  on  top,  and  on  this 
is  placed  a  stone.  This  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  week  or  two. 
For  a  still  simpler  method  the  leaves  may  be  laid  between 
the  leaves  of  an  old  book  and  a  weight  set  on  the  book. 
The  leaves  may  be  mounted  on  unruled  notebook  paper  by 
means  of  glue  or  gummed  paper. 

An  interesting  project  for  the  older  children  is  to  collect 
the  leaves  of  all  the  deciduous  trees  in  the  locality  and  make 
an  exhibit,  to  which  the  friends  and  parents  of  the  children 
are  invited.  The  children  may  be  divided  into  groups,  and 
each  group  assigned  a  certain  family  of  trees  to  collect;  such 
as  the  maples,  the  elms,  the  oaks,  the  birches,  the  willows, 
the  poplars,  the  ashes,  the  nut  trees,  the  locusts,  and  a  few 
trees  will  be  left  which  may  be  placed  in  a  miscellaneous 
group.  These  leaves  may  be  pressed  and  mounted  as  ex- 
plained above.  The  fruits  may  also  be  collected.  The  chil- 


LESSONS  ON  TREES 


91 


dren  may  be  asked  to  look  up  interesting  facts  about  the 
group  of  trees  they  are  collecting,  so  that  they  may  be  able 
to  answer  questions  and  give  explanations  at  the  exhibit. 

Waxing  leaves.  The  autumn  colors  are  best  preserved 
by  waxing  the  leaves.  Scatter  over  the  leaf  small  bits  of 
wax  or  paraffin,  then  pass  over  these  a  moderately  hot  iron. 
Treat  the  other  side  in  the  same  way.  The  leaves  may  also 
be  dipped  in  melted  paraffin.  Still  better  is  to  cover  them 
lightly  with  melted  paraffin,  using  a  small  soft  brush.  The 
leaves  may  then  be  mounted  on  paper  with  glue. 

Blue  prints.  A  collection  of  blue  prints  of  leaves  is  very 
attractive.  These  prints  are  easily  made  and  show  not  only 
the  outline,  but  sometimes  the  veining,  of  the  leaf.  A  blue 
print  is  put  on  a  piece  of  cardboard,  the  leaf  is  arranged  on 
this,  and  a  piece  of  glass  placed  over  all.  These  are  held  in 
position  by  clips  or  by  the  hand  and  exposed  to  the  bright  sun 
till  the  paper  turns  to  a  bronze  shade.  This  is  then  washed 
in  running  water  or  several  changes  of  water  and  then  dried. 

Calendars.  Calendars  are  a  means  of  arousing  the  chil- 
dren's interest  and  of  stimulating  their  observations  of 
trees.  A  large  piece  of  cardboard  may  be  used  for  these 
calendars.  Each  one  should  have  some  artistic  decoration 
suggestive  of  the  topic  to  be  recorded.  These  may  be  kept 
in  both  the  spring  and  fall.  In  the  spring  two  kinds  may  be 
kept  as  the  buds  open,  one  of  the  first  appearance  of  the 
leaves,  and  another  of  the  first  appearance  of  the  flowers. 
These  may  be  kept  in  a  form  like  the  following:  — 


Flower  calendar  of  trees 


Name  of  tree 

Date  first  flower  seen 

Location  of 
tree 

Name  of  child 
first  reporting 

THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 


Leaf  calendar  of  trees 


Name  of  tree 

Date  first  leaf  seen 

Location  of 
tree 

Name  of  child 
first  reporting 

In  the  autumn  two  calendars  may  be  kept,  one  of  the 
coloring  of  the  leaves,  and  one  of  their  fall :  — 


Calendar  of  leaf-coloring 


Name  of  tree 

Date  first 
colors  seen 

Colors 
seen 

Location  of 
tree 

Name  of  child 
first  reporting 

Calendar  of  leaf -fall 


Name  of  tree 

Date  first 
leaves  fall 

Date  when 
all  leaves 
have  fallen 

Location  of 
tree 

Name  of  child 
first  reporting 

In  keeping  the  last  two  calendars  the  children  should  be 
expected  to  bring  the  leaves  to  school  before  the  record  is 
put  on  the  calendar. 

Games.  The  use  of  the  game  element  will  interest  the 
children  and  may  be  used  as  a  means  to  help  them  identify 
the  leaves.  The  same  sort  of  games  may  be  played  with 


LESSONS  ON  TREES  93 

leaves  as  with  bird  pictures,  a  list  of  which  is  given  on 
page  53. 

Arbor  Day.  In  those  States  where  Arbor  Day  is  observed, 
some  special  program  should  be  arranged.  The  central  idea 
should  be  the  planting  of  some  tree,  shrub,  or  vine;  and  the 
children  should  be  encouraged  to  plant  something  at  home. 
The  formal  exercises  may  consist  of  a  talk  by  the  teacher  or 
by  some  one  outside  of  the  school,  reports  of  the  children 
on  their  observations  of  trees,  original  essays  by  the  older 
children,  recitations  of  poems  and  prose  selections  about 
trees,  and  appropriate  songs. 

Correlation.  Tree-study  lends  itself  admirably  to  corre- 
lation with  other  subjects,  especially  art  and  literature.  In 
the  autumn  much  interesting  work  can  be  done  with  colored 
leaves.  The  younger  children  can  make  free-hand  cuttings 
and  then  color  them  with  crayons.  The  older  children  may 
make  drawings  of  leaves  or  paint  them  with  water-colors. 
Cuttings  may  be  made  showing  the  shape  of  whole  trees. 
Charts  may  be  made  showing  how  trees  are  cut,  how  the 
wood  gets  to  us,  and  the  uses  made  of  wood.  Blue  prints 
may  be  made  of  leaves  and  of  the  opening  buds.  The  work 
that  the  children  have  done  for  a  year  showing  the  trees  at 
different  seasons  may  be  bound  together  to  form  booklets. 
Shapes  of  trees,  nuts,  and  fruits  may  be  modeled  in  clay  by 
the  primary  children. 

Grades  and  seasons.  There  is  something  of  interest  about 
trees  for  every  grade.  In  the  primary  grades  studies  may  be 
made  of  the  colored  leaves  in  the  autumn  and  the  children 
may  be  taught  to  identify  a  few  common  trees  from  their 
leaves,  including  a  few  Christmas  trees.  In  the  intermediate 
grades  the  children  may  be  taught  to  recognize  a  larger 
number  of  the  common  trees,  and  some  study  of  their  uses 
may  be  made.  In  the  grammar  grades  special  attention  may 
be  given  to  the  uses  of  trees  and  to  the  subject  of  forestry. 


94  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Every  season  has  something  of  interest.  In  the  autumn 
the  leaves  and  fruit  may  be  studied  and  the  coloring  and 
fall  of  the  leaf.  In  the  winter  evergreens  and  the  bark, 
branching,  shape,  and  twigs  of  the  deciduous  trees  may 
be  studied.  In  the  spring  the  opening  of  the  buds  and 
the  flowers  found  at  this  time  may  be  noted.  The  topic 
of  forestry  may  be  taken  up  during  any  portion  of  the 
year. 

The  following  table  suggests  in  a  concise  form  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  topics  according  to  grade  and  season:  — 


Season 
Autumn 


Winter         Christmas  trees 


Spring 


Primary  Grades 

Colored  leaves 
Identification  of 
a  few  common 
trees 
Nuta 

Intermediate  Grades 

Study  of  groups  of 
trees,    as   shade, 
fruit,     and     nut 
trees 
Tree  fruits 
Calendars 

Grammar  Grades 

Forest  trees 
Forest  fires 

Opening  buds  of 
trees  studied 
in  fall 

Flowers  of  fruit 
trees 


Evergreens  Value  of  forests 

Winter    characters  Enemies  of  forests 

—  shape,    barks,  Identification     of 

buds   of   decidu-  deciduous  trees 
ous  trees 


Opening  buds  of 
trees  studied  in 
fall 

Flowers  of  trees 

Calendars 


Conservation  of 
forests 


Series  of  lessons.  A  few  lessons  on  trees  are  suggested 
below  in  brief  outline  form.  In  the  study  of  particular  kinds 
of  trees  one  species  should  be  followed  through  the  whole 
year,  so  as  to  notice  the  changes  through  which  it  passes: 
the  foliage  in  the  early  autumn;  the  leaf -coloring  and  fall  in 
the  late  autumn;  the  shape,  branching,  and  bark  in  the  win- 
ter; and  the  opening  buds  in  the  spring. 


LESSONS  ON  TREES  95 

A.  Lessons  for  primary  grades 
AUTUMN  LEAVES  (FIRST  GRADE) 

The  first  study  of  trees  may  well  be  made  with  the  colored  leaves. 
A  pile  of  leaves  should  be  provided  illustrating  as  great  a  variety 
of  colors  as  possible. 

Have  the  children  group  the  leaves  according  to  color  into  sepa- 
rate piles  —  one  for  red,  one  for  yellow,  one  for  brown,  and  one  for 
green. 

The  leaves  may  be  grouped  again  according  to  the  combina- 
tions of  colors;  those  in  one  pile  that  have  both  red  and  yellow;  in 
another  pile  those  that  have  both  yellow  and  brown  and  so  on. 

The  leaves  may  be  grouped  according  to  shape;  those  of  similar 
shape  being  put  in  one  pile;  they  may  be  grouped  again  according 
to  size. 

The  children  may  cut  leaves  free-hand  from  paper  and  then 
color  them  with  crayons,  or  the  coloring  may  be  done  without 
cutting.  Some  of  the  prettiest  leaves  may  be  waxed,  as  explained 
in  a  previous  part  of  the  chapter. 

Some  of  the  following  poems  may  be  read  to  the  children:  — 
Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  pages  29,  203-206,  208. 
McMurry  and  Cook,  Songs  of  Tree-Top  and  Meadow,  page  16. 

TOPIC:  CHRISTMAS  TREES 
Materials:  Twigs  of  several  kinds  of  evergreens. 

Child's  problem. 

How  can  we  tell  the  different  kinds  of  Christmas  trees  apart. 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Shape  of  leaves. 

2.  Size  of  leaves. 

3.  Arrangement  of  leaves. 

4.  Kind  of  fruit. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  bring  to  school  twigs  of  Christmas  trees  and 
name  them. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  free-hand  cuttings  made  showing  the  shapes  of  Christmas 
trees.  Drawings  with  colored  crayons  may  also  be  made. 


96  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Literature. 

Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  page  285. 
Lovejoy,  Poetry  of  the  Seasons,  page  295. 
Wiggin  and  Smith,  Posy  Ring,  page  265. 

J5.  Lessons  for  intermediate  grades 
TOPIC:  THE  MAPLES 

Materials:  Leaves  of  maples  growing  in  the  vicinity,  including  the 
box-elder. 

Child's  problem. 

How  can  we  tell  the  members  of  the  maple  family  apart? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Differences  in  shape  of  leaves. 

2.  Differences  in  margin  of  leaves. 

3.  Differences  in  kind  of  leaves  (simple  or  compound). 

4.  Differences  in  color  of  under  side  of  leaves. 

5.  Differences  in  autumn  colors. 

6.  Differences  in  bark. 

7.  Differences  in  fruit. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  look  for  each  of  these  kinds  of  maples  and 
bring  a  leaf  of  each  to  school,  or  report  where  they  saw  the 
trees  growing.  Have  them  watch  the  autumn  coloring  for  any 
differences. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  the  children  make  outline  drawings  of  leaves  or  blue 

prints. 
Literature. 

Wiggin  and  Smith,  Golden  Numbers,  page  17. 

Stone  and  Pickett,  Trees  in  Prose  and  Poetry,  pages  32-41. 

TOPIC:  USES  OF  WOOD 
Materials:  Samples  of  the  more  commonly  used  woods. 

Child's  problem. 

What  are  the  most  important  uses  made  of  wood? 


LESSONS  ON  TREES  97 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  For  building. 

2.  For  furniture. 

3.  For  musical  instruments. 

4.  Miscellaneous  uses. 

Application.  • 

Ask  the  children  to  note  especially  for  a  few  days  the  uses  they 
see  made  of  wood  and  report  any  new  uses,  and  find  out  what 
kinds  of  wood  are  used  most  commonly.  Have  a  collection 
made  of  the  different  kinds  of  wood. 

Correlated  work. 
Literature. 
McMurry  and  Cook,  Songs  of  Tree-Top  and  Meadow,  page  29. 

C.  Lessons  for  grammar  grades 

TOPIC:  FOREST  FIRES 
Materials:  Pictures  showing  effects  of  fires  and  men  fighting  fires. 

Child's  problem. 
How  may  forest  fires  be  controlled? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Causes  of  fires. 

2.  Damage  done. 

3.  Kinds  of  fires. 

4.  Preventing  fires. 

5.  Putting  out  fires. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  watch  the  papers  for  reference  to  fires  and  to 
cut  out  the  clippings  and  bring  to  school. 

TOPIC:  WORK  OF  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT  TO  PROTECT 
FORESTS 

Materials:  Map  showing  location  of  national  forests;  pictures  of 
rangers  at  work  in  forest;  samples  of  bulletins  published  by  the 
Forest  Service. 

Child's  problem. 
What  is  our  National  Government  doing  to  protect  our  forests? 


98  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Outline  of  development. 
1.  National  forests. 

A.  Location. 

B.  Number  and  uses. 

C.  Care  and  use. 
,     2.  Forest  Service. 

A.  Work  at  Washington. 

B.  Work  in  the  forests. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  watch  the  papers  and  magazines  for  refer- 
ence to  the  national  forests  or  the  Forest  Service,  and  to  bring 
clippings  to  school. 


CHAPTER  X 

LESSONS  WITH  FLOWERS 

The  study  of  flowers.  There  is  something  about  flowers 
that  appeals  to  every  one,  both  young  and  old.  The  young 
child  is  interested  in  the  bright  colors  and  wishes  to  know 
the  names  of  the  flowers.  In  the  primary  grades  the  chief 
thing  to  emphasize  is  identification.  After  a  flower  is  studied 
in  the  schoolroom  the  children  should  be  encouraged  to  find 
the  flower  growing  in  its  natural  environment.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  flowers  are  not  picked  needlessly,  espe- 
cially the  rare  ones,  some  of  which  are  in  danger  of  exter- 
mination in  the  neighborhood  of  cities. 

There  is  one  set  of  flowers  to  be  studied  in  the  spring  and 
another  set  for  autumn.  Something  of  interest  may  be 
found  for  study  in  every  grade.  The  purpose  of  the  study 
of  flowers  should  be  to  acquaint  the  children  with  the  more 
common  forms  of  wild  flowers,  so  that  they  may  know  and 
appreciate  them,  and  thus  want  to  preserve  them.  The 
older  children  may  be  taught  something  about  the  economic 
side  of  pollination. 

Materials.  A  freshly  picked  bouquet  of  the  flowers  to  be 
studied  can  usually  be  obtained,  so  that  there  will  be  plenty 
of  material  for  schoolroom  use.  During  the  spring  a  single 
plant  of  the  various  flowers  studied  may  be  dug  up  with 
some  soil  and  put  in  a  flower-pot.  This  may  be  kept  in  the 
schoolroom  and  watered.  In  this  way  the  whole  develop- 
ment of  the  plant  may  be  followed  from  the  opening  bud  to 
the  fruit.  While  the  children  are  interested  chiefly  in  the 
flowers  of  plants,  attention  should  also  be  called  to  the  leaves 
and  fruit  of  the  various  plants  studied. 


100 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 


Calendar.  The  flower  calendar  is  always  a  means  of 
arousing  interest  and  of  stimulating  outdoor  observation  on 
the  part  of  the  children.  A  large  piece  of  cardboard  should  be 
secured,  and  at  the  edge  or  top  should  be  placed  some  artis- 
tic decoration  suggestive  of  flowers.  The  cardboard  should 
then  be  ruled  off  into  columns  for  keeping  the  records  of  the 
flowers  brought  in.  The  following  outline  is  suggested :  — 


Flower  calendar 


Name  of  flower 

Date  brought  in 

Name  of  child 
first  bringing  it 

Place  where 
found 

Another  way  of  keeping  a  calendar  is  to  press  and  mount 
the  flowers  as  they  are  brought  in,  as  explained  on  page  90, 
for  the  leaves  of  trees.  On  each  card  put  the  four  facts 
called  for  in  the  headings  given  above.  These  cards  may  be 
hung  on  the  walls  of  the  room.  Both  lands  of  calendars  may 
be  kept  in  either  spring  or  fall. 

Games.  The  bird  games  suggested  on  page  53  may  be 
easily  adapted  to  flower  games.  For  these  games  a  bouquet 
of  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  flowers  will  be  needed. 
Another  game  called  "the  florist"  may  be  played.  Bouquets 
of  both  wild  and  cultivated  flowers  are  placed  on  the  desk. 
One  child  sits  at  the  desk  and  supposes  that  he  is  a  florist 
with  flowers  for  sale.  The  other  children  in  turn  come  to  the 
desk  and  ask  for  a  certain  flower.  If  the  florist  gives  the 
wrong  flower,  some  other  child  takes  his  place. 

Wild-flower  garden.  If  there  is  a  shady  corner  of  the 
yard  that  is  not  used,  it  may  be  spaded  up  and  made  into 
a  wild-flower  garden.  During  the  spring  the  roots  of  vari- 
ous kinds  of  wild  flowers  may  be  dug  up  and  transplanted 


LESSONS  WITH  FLOWERS  101 

into  this  garden.  In  a  few  years  a  collection  of  the  more 
common  flowers  may  thus  be  secured  in  the  school  yard. 

Correlation.  Flower-study  lends  itself  splendidly  to  cor- 
relation with  art.  In  connection  with  the  science  lessons, 
following  the  study  of  a  flower,  the  children  may  draw  the 
flowers  with  colored  crayons  or  paint  them  with  water- 
colors.  The  best  drawing  of  each  flower  may  be  selected 
and  put  on  the  wall,  and  thus  a  collection  may  be  made  of 
the  best  drawings. 

Blue  prints  may  be  made  of  some  of  the  flowers.  These 
will  show  the  outline  of  the  leaves  and  something  of  the 
shape  and  grouping  of  the  flowers.  A  flower  garden  may  be 
made  in  the  sand  table. 

There  is  a  large  amount  of  good  literature  on  flowers,  and 
some  of  the  best  of  these  selections  may  be  read  in  connec- 
tion with  the  study  of  the  flowers.  Flower-study  may  also 
be  correlated  with  language  lessons.  Topics  about  which 
the  children  are  to  talk  or  write  may  be  selected  from  their 
observation  of  flowers. 

Series  of  lessons  on  flowers 

A.  Lessons  for  primary  grades 

GENERAL  STUDY  OF  FLOWERS  (AUTUMN) 

Secure  a  bouquet  containing  a  great  variety  of  flowers.  Have 
the  children  sort  the  flowers  by  colors  into  separate  piles,  each 
color  by  itself.  When  more  than  one  color  is  found  on  a  flower, 
use  the  most  prominent  one  for  sorting. 

Again  have  the  children  sort  the  flowers  into  two  piles,  one  con- 
taining the  large  flowers  and  the  other  the  small  flowers,  first  select- 
ing some  flower  for  a  standard  size. 

Sort  the  flowers  into  two  piles,  those  that  the  children  know  and 
those  that  they  do  not  know.  The  names  of  the  unknown  flowers 
may  he  written  on  slips  of  paper,  and  a  slip  given  to  each  child  who 
is  asked  to  pick  out  this  flower. 

Sort  the  flowers  into  two  piles,  those  having  a  distinct  odor  and 
those  having  little  or  no  odor. 


102 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 


TOPIC:  GOLDENROD  (AUTUMN) 

Materials:  Bouquet  of  goldenrods,  enough  so  each  child  can  have 
a  spray. 

Child's  problem. 

How  can  we  tell  the  goldenrod  from  other  fall  flowers  when  we 
see  it  growing? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Color. 

2.  Size  of  flowers. 

3.  Grouping  of  flowers. 

4.  Arrangement  on  stem. 

5.  Place  of  growth. 

6.  Height  of  plant. 

Application. 

Ask  each  child  to  find  a  goldenrod  growing,  and  to  bring  one  to 
school  the  next  day  to  make  a  bouquet  for  the  schoolroom. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have   the  children  draw  pictures  of  the   goldenrod,  using 

colored  crayons. 
Literature. 
Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  page  193. 

B.  Lessons  for  intermediate  grades 
TABLES  FOR  REVIEW 

Toward  the  end  of  the  spring  and  again  in  the  fall,  about  the 
time  that  the  last  flowers  appear,  the  children's  knowledge  of 
flowers  may  be  briefly  reviewed  by  using  the  following  tables. 
These  may  be  put  on  the  board  and  the  names  of  the  flowers  that 
the  children  know  put  in  the  proper  columns. 


Flowers  grouped  according  to  color 


Red 

Yellow 

Blue 

Pink 

White 

LESSONS  WITH  FLOWERS  103 


Flowers  grouped  according  to  habitat 


Flowers  growing 


In  woods 

Infields 

In  pastures 

In  swamps 

By  roadside 

TOPIC:  POLLINATION  OF  APPLE  BLOSSOMS  (SPRING) 

Materials:  Enough  apple  blossoms  to  supply  each  child  with  a 
specimen. 

Child's  problem. 

In  what  ways  is  the  apple  blossom  adapted  to  bring  about  insect 
pollination? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Reason  for  insects'  visits. 

A.  Nectar. 

B.  Pollen. 

2.  Means  of  attracting  attsntion  of  insects. 

A.  Colors. 

B.  Odors. 

3.  Value  to  flower  of  visits. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  watch  an  apple  tree  and  see  what  insects 
they  find  visiting  the  flowers. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  drawings  made  with  crayons  or  water-colors. 
Literature. 

Lovejoy,  Poetry  of  the  Seasons,  page  75. 

Wiggin  and  Smith,  Golden  Numbers,  page  63. 


104  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

TOPIC:  VINES  (AUTUMN) 

Materials:  Obtain  illustrations  of  as  many  of  the  following  types 
as  possible:  twining  stems  (bittersweet,  morning-glory,  moon- 
seed),  twisting  petioles  (nasturtiums,  clematis),  tendrils  (sweet 
pea,  grape),  suckers  (woodbine). 

Child's  problem. 

What  are  the  different  ways  in  which  vines  climb? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  By  twining  stems. 

2.  By  twisting  petioles. 

3.  By  tendrils. 

4.  By  suckers. 

5.  Support  required  by  each  of  the  above. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  observe  a  number  of  vines  before  the  next 
lesson,  and  notice  the  method  by  which  each  climbs.  Report 
to  class.  From  these  reports  determine  which  is  the  most  com- 
mon method. 

Have  a  collection  made  of  the  leaves  and  climbing  portions  of 
the  vines.  These  should  be  pressed  and  mounted  on  a  large 
cardboard. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  drawings  made  of  each  of  the  above  types. 
Literature. 

McMurry  and  Cook,  Songs  of  Tree-Top  and  Meadow,  page  72. 

Lovejoy,  Poetry  of  the  Seasons,  pages  323,  324. 


CHAPTER  XI 

SEED-DISPERSAL  AND  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS 
1.  Seed-dispersal 

SEED-DISPERSAL  is  a  topic  that  always  appeals  to  chil- 
dren. Nearly  every  child  has  blown  on  a  head  of  dandelion 
seeds  to  see  if  his  mother  wants  him.  The  material  is 
abundant  in  the  autumn,  and  easy  to  secure. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  lines  of  work  is  to  have  col- 
lections made  of  the  various  seeds.  These  may  be  mounted 
in  several  ways.  One  way  is  to  secure  from  the  drug-store 
a  number  of  small  vials  with  stoppers,  and  place  one  kind 
of  seed  in  each  bottle.  These  bottles  may  be  mounted  on  a 
cardboard  by  means  of  a  piece  of  elastic,  and  the  names  may 
be  written  on  the  cardboard  beneath  the  bottle,  or  a  label 
may  be  pasted  on  the  bottle;  or  the  seeds  may  be  fastened 
directly  onto  the  cardboard  by  means  of  glue  or  mucilage. 
These  collections  may  be  class  affairs,  all  the  children  help- 
ing to  furnish  seeds  for  the  collections. 

For  the  younger  children  the  following  topics  for  collec- 
tions are  suggested:  Seeds  that  fly.  Seeds  that  steal  a  ride. 
Seeds  scattered  by  birds.  Seeds  scattered  by  the  plant  itself. 

For  the  upper  grades  two  central  topics  may  be  taken  for 
the  collections :  dispersal  of  tree  seeds  and  of  weed  seeds. 

Series  of  lessons  for  primary  grades 
TOPIC:  SEEDS  THAT  FLY  (AUTUMN) 

Materials:  Seeds  to  illustrate  the  four  types  of  distribution  men- 
tioned below;  such  as  milkweed,  dandelion,  aster,  maple,  ash, 
box-elder,  tumbleweed,  bladder  nut,  hop.  Allow  the  children  to 
blow  some  seeds  to  see  how  they  float  and  how  far  they  travel. 


106  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Child's  problem. 

How  are  some  seeds  made  so  that  they  can  fly? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Seeds  with  hairs. 

2.  Seeds  with  wings. 

3.  Comparison  of  two  types. 

A.  Method  of  flying. 

B.  Distance  carried. 

4.  Tumbleweeds. 

5.  Inflated  pods. 

Application. 

Have  the  children  make  a  collection  of  seeds  that  fly.  One 
third  might  collect  seeds  with  hairs,  another  third  seeds  with 
wings,  and  another  third  inflated  pods. 

Correlated  work. 
Literature. 
Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  page  15. 

A  special  lesson  may  be  given  on  one  plant  alone,  such  as  the 
dandelion  or  milkweed,  making  a  study  of  the  whole  plant,  includ- 
ing stem,  leaves,  fruit,  and  flower. 

TOPIC:  SEEDS  THAT  STEAL  A  RIDE 

Materials:  A  variety  of  seeds  distributed  by  animals;  such  as  bur- 
dock, clotbur,  pitchforks,  tick-trefoil. 

Child's  problem. 

How  are  some  seeds  made  so  that  they  can  steal  a  ride? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Adaptation  for  sticking. 

A.  Burdock. 

B.  Pitchforks. 

C.  Tick-trefoil. 

2.  How  carried. 

A.  By  animals. 

B.  By  man. 

Application. 

Have  the  children  make  a  collection  of  "Seeds  that  steal  a 
Ride,"  trying  to  see  how  many  kinds  they  can  find. 


SEED-DISPERSAL  AND  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS    107 

Correlated  work. 
The  children  may  use  the  burdock  burs  to  make  various  objects; 

such  as  baskets,  chairs,  tables,  houses,  etc. 
Literature. 

Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  page  122. 

A  separate  lesson  may  be  given  on  the  burdock  alone,  making  a 
study  of  the  whole  plant. 

2.  Flowerless  plants 

Mushrooms.  Mushrooms  have  a  number  of  characters 
that  make  them  interesting  objects  for  study;  some  of  them 
are  edible,  some  are  brightly  colored,  there  are  many  differ- 
ent kinds,  and  they  are  of  wide  distribution.  They  are  of 
further  interest  on  account  of  their  method  of  getting  food. 
They  cannot  make  their  own  food,  but  get  it  from  other 
plants  or  animals,  either  living  or  dead. 

Their  food  value  has  been  exaggerated.  Their  chief  value 
is  as  a  food  accessory.  There  is  no  easy  and  infallible  way 
by  which  one  may  separate  the  edible  from  the  poisonous 
species.  The  only  safe  way  is  to  collect  only  those  species 
which  are  known  to  be  edible  and  leave  the  unknown  alone, 
if  one  is  collecting  for  eating.  There  is  no  danger  in  handling 
the  poisonous  species.  Certain  kinds  of  mushrooms,  such 
as  the  coral  mushrooms,  are  all  edible,  and  so  may  be  col- 
lected and  eaten  without  danger. 

Lesson  on  mushrooms  (intermediate  grades) 

Materials:  Several  days  before  the  lesson  is  to  be  given,  the  children 
should  be  asked  to  collect  all  the  mushrooms  they  can  and  bring 
them  to  school.  Most  of  the  common  kinds  can  be  put  into  one 
of  the  groups  given  below.  Have  spore  prints  made  of  several 
species.  Cut  off  the  stems  near  the  cap,  and  place  the  cap  gills 
down  on  a  piece  of  paper.  Cover  the  whole  with  a  dish  and  allow 
to  stand  overnight.  The  spores  will  fall  down  and  form  a  spore 
print  on  the  paper.  If  it  is  desired  to  make  permanent  prints, 
spread  a  thin  coating  of  mucilage  over  the  paper,  and  support 
the  cap  on  each  side  with  matches  so  that  the  gills  do  not  touch 


108  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

the  mucilage.  When  the  mucilage  becomes  dry,  the  print  may  be 
stored  away  and  kept. 

Child's  problem. 

How  do  mushrooms  differ  from  each  other? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Gill-bearing  mushrooms. 

2.  Pore-bearing  mushrooms. 

3.  Spine-bearing  mushrooms. 

4.  Puffballs. 

5.  Coral  mushrooms. 

6.  Cup  fungi. 

7.  Characters  of  each  of  the  above  groups. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  look  for  the  different  kinds  of  mushrooms 
and  report  of  which  kind  they  see  the  most  during  the  fol- 
lowing week.  Have  a  collection  of  spore  prints  made  on  mu- 
cilaged  paper. 

Correlated  work. 
Art 

Have  drawings  made  of  some  of  these  forms  either  with  pen- 
cil or  water-colors. 

Ferns.  Ferns  are  attractive  on  account  of  the  "beauty  of 
their  foliage.  They  may  be  grown  as  house  plants  or  set 
outdoors  in  some  shady  place.  An  appropriate  place  in  the 
school  yard  may  be  selected  and  specimens  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  ferns  found  growing  in  the  neighborhood 
may  be  dug  up  in  the  spring  and  transplanted  here.  These 
will  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  yard  and  also  furnish  ma- 
terials for  science  lessons. 

Study  of  ferns  (intermediate  grades) 

Materials:  Fronds  of  at  least  two  species  of  ferns.  The  house  fern 
may  be  used  for  one. 

Child's  problem. 

What  are  the  differences  in  ferns  by  means  of  which  they  may 
be  told  apart? 


SEED-DISPERSAL  AND  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS     109 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Leaves. 

A.  Size. 

B.  Number  of  times  divided. 

C.  Edges. 

2.  Fruit  dots. 

A.  Position. 

B.  Arrangement. 

C.  Shape. 

Application. 

Have  the  children  make  a  collection  of  as  many  kinds  of  ferns 
as  they  can  find.  These  may  be  pressed  and  mounted  like 
leaves,  as  explained  in  the  chapter  on  trees,  or  blue  prints 
of  small  portions  of  the  frond  may  be  made.  A  series  of  paint- 
ings, mounted  specimens,  and  blue  prints  for  each  species 
would  make  an  interesting  and  valuable  collection. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  drawings  or  paintings  made  of  the  various  species. 
Literature. 

McMurry  and  Cook,  Songs  qf  Tree-Top  and  Meadow,  page  15. 


PART  III 
AGRICULTURAL  SCIENCE 


CHAPTER 

GARDENING 

The  home-garden  movement.  In  recent  years  there  has 
developed  in  this  country  a  great  movement  to  encourage 
home  gardening  by  children.  In  some  cities  the  movement 
has  been  carried  on  by  civic  organizations.  In  other  cities 
it  has  been  under  the  supervision  of  the  schools.  This  latter 
method  seems  the  better  and  final  solution  of  the  problem, 
because  if  it  is  done  as  a  part  of  the  school  work  it  will  be- 
come permanently  established.  In  order  that  the  garden 
work  should  be  carried  on  most  effectively,  there  should  be 
some  one  employed  to  visit  the  home  gardens  during  the 
summer  and  give  such  help  as  may  be  needed.  The  National 
Bureau  of  Education  is  advocating  that  school  boards 
employ  one  teacher  for  twelve  months,  who  shall  have 
supervision  of  the  home  gardens  during  the  summer  and 
teach  some  of  the  regular  school  subjects  during  the  rest 
of  the  year.  In  some  towns  the  instructor  in  agriculture  in 
the  high  school  supervises  the  children's  gardens  during 
the  summer. 

Frequently  prizes  are  offered  for  the  best  gardens,  or 
pupils  are  given  school  credit  for  the  work  done  hi  the  home 
gardens.  But  even  without  a  special  supervisor  much  can 
be  done  on  the  part  of  the  regular  teachers  who  can  seek  to 
interest  the  children  and  teach  the  steps  necessary  to  start 
their  garden.  And  if  a  supervisor  is  provided,  the  help  of 
the  teachers  is  needed  to  cooperate  with  her. 
1  One  effective  way  of  getting  the  children  to  start  a  garden 
is  to  give  them  a  means  of  buying  penny  packets  of  seeds. 


114  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

A  number  of  firms  are  now  selling  seeds  at  this  rate  to  school 
children. 

Children's  interests  in  kinds  of  gardens.  Young  children 
are  more  interested  in  the  flower  and  vegetable  gardens  than 
in  the  fruit  garden,  because  the  latter  requires  such  a  long 
time  before  any  returns  are  secured,  excepting  the  fall 
strawberry.  The  relative  interest  in  the  flower  garden  and 
vegetable  garden  depends  on  the  age  and  sex  of  the  chil- 
dren. In  general,  girls  are  more  interested  in  the  flower 
garden,  and  boys  in  the  vegetable  garden;  and  the  younger 
boys  are  more  interested  in  the  flower  garden  than  are  the 
older  boys.  The  financial  side  of  the  vegetable  garden 
appeals  quite  strongly,  however,  to  all  children.  In  many 
portions  of  the  country  girls'  clubs  are  being  formed  for  the 
raising  and  canning  of  vegetables. 

Value  of  gardening.  Every  child  should  have  some  ex- 
perience in  gardening.  It  teaches  children  many  valuable 
lessons.  Dr.  Hodge  has  well  said:  "The  vandalism,  juvenile 
and  even  adult,  that  renders  pursuit  of  horticulture  in  a 
New  England  city  or  town  well-nigh  impossible,  must  be 
accounted  a  first  fruit  of  this  universal  neglect"  of  the  study 
of  gardening  in  the  schools. 

A  large  amount  of  pleasurable  and  profitable  work  in 
growing  plants  is  possible  in  the  home  grounds.  Even  in 
the  small  city  lot,  with  only  its  back  yard  available,  a  great 
deal  can  be  done;  while,  as  the  size  of  the  yard  increases,  the 
possibilities  increase  accordingly. 

^Esthetic  value.  One  of  the  chief  values  of  gardening  is 
the  aesthetic  value.  One  derives  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  in 
raising  plants  and  watching  them  grow.  It  is  a  source  of 
never-ending  pleasure  to  start  each  spring  with  the  seeds 
and  watch  the  wonderful  changes  that  occur  till  the  mature 
plant  is  formed.  The  foliage  of  some  garden  plants  is  attrac- 
tive. In  the  case  of  the  flower  garden  there  is  an  added 


GARDENING  115 

pleasure  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  the  flowers  that  one 
can  raise.  Garden  work  leads  to  the  cleaning-up  of  the  back 
yards,  thus  adding  to  the  beauty  of  the  home  grounds. 

Economic  value.  The  home  garden  has  a  very  important 
place  for  its  value  in  reducing  the  cost  of  living.  The  un- 
precedented rise  in  the  cost  of  foodstuffs  during  the  last  few 
years  presents  a  serious  problem  to  the  great  majority  of 
people.  This  financial  stress  may  be  greatly  relieved  by 
raising  vegetables  in  the  home  garden.  Even  a  small  garden 
will  furnish  enough  vegetables  for  a  family  during  the  sum- 
mer, and  a  medium-sized  garden  will  furnish  in  addition 
enough  to  can  or  store  in  the  cellar  for  winter  use;  while  as 
the  garden  becomes  larger,  some  of  the  produce  may  be 
sold.  This  possibility  of  earning  money  is  a  motive  that 
appeals  strongly  to  children. 

A  child  with  a  garden  including  twenty-five  hundred 
square  feet  should  be  able  to  raise  at  least  ten  dollars'  worth 
of  produce.  In  larger  gardens  some  city  children  have  made 
from  one  hundred  to  three  hundred  dollars.  With  proper 
direction  a  large  number  of  children  should  be  able  to  earn 
one  hundred  dollars.  When  we  think  of  the  army  of  over 
twenty  million  school  children  in  this  country,  most  of 
whom  are  free  from  school  duties  during  the  summer,  we  see 
the  tremendous  possibilities.  If  one  half  of  these  should 
have  a  garden,  and  each  raise  only  ten  dollars'  worth  of 
produce,  that  would  mean  a  total  of  one  hundred  million 
dollars,  or  an  average  of  one  dollar  to  every  man,  woman, 
and  child  in  the  United  States.  Surely  this  would  be  worth 
while  from  the  economic  standpoint  alone,  without  refer- 
ence to  the  many  other  values  of  gardening. 

Hygienic  value.  Another  value  of  gardening  is  found  in 
its  effect  on  health.  This  is  produced  in  two  ways.  First, 
there  is  the  value  of  exercise  in  the  open  air.  Exercise  is  one 
of  the  essentials  in  maintaining  health,  and  gardening  fur- 


116  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

nishes  a  valuable  kind.  A  second  effect  on  health  is  pro* 
duced  because  the  garden  furnishes  a  healthful  kind  of  food 
and  it  may  be  obtained  fresh,  which  makes  it  more  health- 
ful than  the  vegetables  that  one  buys  at  the  store,  which 
have  been  standing  some  time.  Many  people  eat  too  much 
meat  food  and  their  health  is  injured  thereby.  Anything 
which  encourages  eating  less  meat  and  more  vegetables  and 
fruits,  as  a  home  garden  does,  makes  for  better  health.  And 
when  one  cans  his  own  fruits  and  vegetables  he  may  be 
sure  that  they  are  clean. 

Ethical  value.  And  finally,  and  perhaps  of  more  impor- 
tance than  anything  else,  are  the  lessons  that  the  child  learns 
which  affect  his  character.  The  care  of  the  garden  develops 
in  the  child  a  sense  of  responsibility  and  respect  for  the 
property  rights  of  other  people  through  his  feeling  of  owner- 
ship for  his  own  garden.  And  through  his  own  labor  he 
develops  an  appreciation  of  the  dignity  of  labor. 

It  is  a  great  misfortune  that  so  many  children  have 
nothing  to  occupy  their  attention  during  the  long  summer 
vacation.  As  a  result  they  acquire  habits  of  idleness;  or 
even  worse,  in  their  efforts  to  find  something  to  do,  many 
acquire  habits  which  are  positively  harmful.  Gardening  fur- 
nishes the  children  something  definite  to  take  their  atten- 
tion and  to  occupy  their  time  in  a  profitable  way,  allowing 
them  to  earn  money  as  a  result  of  their  labors.  In  marketing 
the  products  they  also  acquire  a  desirable  business  experi- 
ence. Thus  the  child  acquires  habits  of  thrift  instead  of 
habits  of  idleness. 

Another  advantage  of  the  home  garden  is  that  it  con- 
nects the  school  life  of  the  child  with  his  home  life,  and 
brings  the  teacher  and  parents  together  and  produces  a 
better  understanding  between  them. 

Motivation  in  gardening.  There  are  three  main  motives 
to  which  appeal  may  be  made  to  induce  the  child  to  start  a 


GARDENING  117 

garden:  the  desire  to  earn  money,  the  desire  to  eat  products 
of  his  own  raising,  and  the  pleasure  that  the  child  derives 
from  the  various  garden  activities.  The  desire  to  earn 
money  is  a  strong  motive.  The  produce  can  be  sold,  either 
at  home  or  to  neighbors  who  have  no  garden,  or  to  the  stores. 
In  some  towns  prizes  are  offered  for  the  best  gardens,  and 
the  game  element  of  competition  enters  to  furnish  an  addi- 
tional stimulus.  And  even  if  no  produce  is  sold,  there  is  the 
appeal  that  comes  from  having  the  products  of  his  labor  for 
his  own  use.  The  children  are  interested  also  in  the  manual 
activity  involved  and  in  the  fact  that  it  is  done  out  of 
doors.  The  rapid  changes  that  take  place  in  the  plant  as 
the  seed  germinates  and  the  plant  grows  hold  the  child's 
interest. 

The  work  in  gardening  as  it  may  be  carried  on  in  the 
schoolroom  may  be  divided  into  four  groups,  as  follows:  — • 

I.  A  study  of  the  products  of  gardening. 

A.  Cultivated  flowers. 

B.  Vegetables. 

C.  Fruits. 

II.  Lessons  to  encourage  home  gardening. 

A.  Reasons  why  the  children  like  to  have  a  garden. 

B.  Give  means  of  securing  penny  packets  of  seeds. 

C.  Making  plans  of  home  gardens. 

D.  How  to  prepare  the  soil. 

E.  How  to  plant  seeds. 

F.  How  to  transplant  seedlings. 

G.  How  to  thin  seedlings. 

H.  How  to  care  for  the  gardens. 

III.  Growing  house  plants  in  the  schoolroom. 

A.  Flowers  from  bulbs. 

B.  Growing  other  house  plants. 

C.  Propagation  of  house  plants. 

IV.  Experiments  with  plants. 

A.  Raising  plants  in  schoolroom  from  seeds. 
1.  To  obtain  the  final  product. 


118  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

2.  To  raise  seedlings  to  transplant  in  the  home  gar- 
dens. 

3.  To  watch  changes  in  seeds  and  seedlings. 

4.  To  make  an  eggshell  garden. 
B.  Germination  experiments. 

1.  Conditions  for  germination. 

2.  Depths  of  planting. 

3.  Testing  vitality. 

4.  How  a  squash  seedling  gets  out  of  the  seed  coat. 

5.  What  happens  to  the  cotyledons. 

6.  How  seedlings  break  the  soil. 

7.  Use  of  cotyledons  to  seedlings. 

8.  To  show  the  expansive  power  of  germination  of 


C.  Work  of  roots. 

1.  Absorption  of  water. 

2.  Root  hairs. 

3.  Direction  of  growth. 

4.  Food  storage  —  carrot  basket. 

D.  Work  of  stem. 

1.  Passage  of  liquid  up. 

2.  Passage  of  liquid  down. 

3.  Direction  of  growth. 

E.  Work  of  leaf. 

1.  Transpiration. 

2.  Light  and  starch-making. 

3.  Leaf  exposure  to  sunlight. 

4.  Sleep  movements  of  leaves. 

5.  Effect  of  light  on  growth  of  stem  and  leaves. 

1.  Study  of  products  of  the  garden 

Most  of  this  work  can  best  be  carried  on  during  the 
autumn  and  winter,  excepting  for  a  few  plants  that  mature 
during  the  spring  term,  such  as  strawberries.  The  purpose 
of  this  study  is  to  arouse  more  interest  in  garden  pro- 
ducts through  a  better  understanding  of  their  value  and  of 
how  they  have  been  raised,  and  thus  to  create  an  interest 
in  the  children  to  have  a  garden  of  their  own. 


GARDENING  119 

Lesson  on  products  of  the  garden 

A.  For  primary  grades 
TOPIC:  THE  NASTURTIUM  (AUTUMN) 
Materials:  Nasturtium  flower  and  leaf  for  each  child. 

Child's  problem. 

How  can  we  tell  the  nasturtium  from  other  flowers  the  next 
time  we  see  it? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Color  of  flowers. 

2.  Shape  of  flowers. 

3.  Size  of  flowers. 

4.  Shape  of  leaf. 

5.  Height  of  plant. 

0.  Place  where  plant  grows. 

Application. 

Ask  each  child  to  bring  a  nasturtium  to  school  to  make  a  bou- 
quet for  the  room,  or  to  notice  all  the  places  where  they  see 
nasturtiums  growing  and  report  to  the  class. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  the  children  draw  the  flower,  using  colored  crayons. 
Blue  prints  of  the  leaves  may  be  made. 

\ 

TOPIC:  THE  TOMATO 
Materials:  Ripe  and  green  tomatoes,  flowers,  piece  of  plant. 

Child's  problem. 

What  things  have  been  done  so  that  we  might  have  these 
tomatoes? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Saving  seeds. 

2.  Starting  seeds  indoors. 

3.  Transplanting. 

4.  Hoeing. 

5.  Making  support  for  the  plant. 

6.  Harvesting. 

7.  Stages  of  development. 


120  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  watch  people  who  have  tomatoes  in  their 
gardens  and  see  what  they  are  doing  to  them  at  this  time  o1" 
the  year,  and  later  when  the  first  frost  comes. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  the  children  model  a  tomato  in  clay,  or  draw  both  green 
and  ripe  tomatoes  with  colored  crayons.  Cut  sections  across 
tomato  and  have  the  children  draw. 

B.  Lessons  for  intermediate  grades 
TOPIC:  THE  MARIGOLD  AND  COSMOS 
Materials:  Flowers  and  leaves  of  the  marigold  and  cosmos. 

Child's  problem. 

Which  flower  would  you  prefer  to  have  in  your  garden,  the  mari- 
gold or  the  cosmos? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Comparison  of  colors. 

2.  Comparison  of  foliage. 

3.  Length  of  time  in  bloom. 

4.  Height  of  plants. 

5.  Effect  of  first  frosts. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  look  and  see  which  flower  is  more  com- 
monly grown  in  their  neighborhood,  also  to  notice  after  the 
first  frost  if  there  is  any  difference  in  the  effect  on  these 
flowers. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  paintings  made  of  flowers  and  leaves  in  water-colors. 
Literature. 

Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  pages  130,  198. 

TOPIC:  CORN  (AUTUMN) 

Materials:  An  entire  corn  plant  dug  up,  including  the  roots,  silk, 
and  tassel,  and  ears  of  corn  in  different  stages  of  development. 


GARDENING  121 

Child's  problem. 

What  are  the  parts  of  a  corn  plant  that  help  to  grow  the  ears  of 
sweet  corn? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Roots. 

A.  Ordinary  soil  roots. 

B.  Prop  roots. 

C.  Work  of  the  root. 

2.  Stem. 

A.  Nodes  and  internodes. 

B.  Appearance  of  cross-section. 

C.  Work  of  the  stem. 

3.  Leaves. 

A.  Length. 

B.  Edges. 

C.  Sheath. 

D.  Rain  guard. 

E.  Work  of  leaf. 

4.  Flowers. 

A.  Tassel 

B.  Silk. 

C.  Compare  with  ordinary  flower  like  nasturtium. 

D.  Work  of  flower. 

5.  Ears. 

A.  Relation  to  tassel  and  silk. 

B.  Number  to  a  plant. 

C.  Position  on  stem. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  observe  other  corn  plants  growing  and  to 
notice  how  they  differ  from  the  plants  studied. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  drawings  made  of  the  whole  plant;  also  of  cross-section 

of  stems. 
Literature. 

Ingpen,  One  Thousand  Poems  for  Children,  pages  164-65. 
Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  pages  227-28. 
-  Lovejoy,  Poetry  of  the  Seasons,  pages  233-37. 
Wiggin  and  Smith,  Golden  Numbers,  pages  82,  84. 
Wiggin  and  Smith,  Posy  Ring,  pages  93,  248. 


122  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

C.  Lessons  for  grammar  grades 
TOPIC:  STORING  VEGETABLES  (AUTUMN) 
Materials:  One  sample  from  each  of  the  groups  outlined  below. 

Child's  problem. 

In  what  ways  may  vegetables  be  stored  for  winter  use? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Temporary  storing  of  tomatoes  after  frosts. 

2.  Storing  in  cellar  at  medium  low  temperature  (squash,  pump- 
kin). 

3.  Storing  in  cellar  at  low  temperatures  (but  not  freezing)  pota- 
toes, beets,  carrots,  turnips  (the  last  three  in  moist  sand). 

4.  Allowing  to  stay  outdoors  and  freeze  (parsnips,  oyster  plant). 

Application. 

Suggest  that  those  who  have  gardens  at  home  find  suitable 
conditions  for  storing  their  vegetables,  so  that  they  can  have 
them  next  winter.  Those  who  do  not  have  gardens  may  watch 
other  people  to  see  how  they  store  their  vegetables. 

TOPIC:  CANNING  FRUITS  (SPRING) 
Materials:  Pictures  showing  canning  outfits. 

Child's  problem. 

How  may  fruits  be  canned? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Kinds  of  fruit  best  adapted  for  canning. 

2.  Principles  involved. 

A.  Killing  bacteria. 

B.  Preventing  other  bacteria  from  entering. 

3.  Outfit  needed. 

4.  Sterilizing  jars. 

5.  Heating  fruit. 

6.  Covering  jars. 

7.  Testing  jars. 

Application. 

Suggest  that  the  girls  try  canning  some  fruits  at  home  during  the 
summer,  or  have  them  report  on  the  methods  their  mothers 


GARDENING  12S 

S.  Encouraging  home  gardening 

Much  can  be  done  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  arouse 
the  interest  of  the  children  and  to  encourage  them  to  plant 
a  garden.  One  lesson  may  be  given  on  why  the  children 
would  like  to  have  a  garden.  During  the  winter  the  teacher 
should  send  to  a  number  of  seed  firms  for  catalogues.  The 
pictures  found  here  may  be  used  to  interest  the  children 
and  to  help  them  decide  what  to  plant.  The  topics  are  so 
arranged  in  the  outline  in  the  last  chapter  that  the  plants 
specially  suggested  for  planting  in  spring  are  the  ones  that 
have  been  studied  the  previous  fall.  These  points  may  be 
briefly  reviewed  to  lead  the  children  up  to  the  matter  of 
planting  these  seeds.  It  is  not  expected  that  the  children 
will  plant  only  the  seeds  here  suggested,  but  they  should  be 
encouraged  to  include  these  in  their  list,  because  the  seeds 
have  been  so  apportioned  in  the  various  grades  as  to  in- 
clude the  most  common  types  of  flowers  and  vegetables,  so 
that  if  the  child  raises  those  suggested  each  year  he  will 
have  a  fair  idea  of  a  great  variety  of  plants. 

Charts  for  primary  grades.  A  great  variety  of  charts  may 
be  made  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  gardening.  For 
making  the  charts  a  large  piece  of  heavy  paper  will  be 
needed.  Each  chart  should  represent  some  specific  idea. 
Oftentimes  the  heading  may  be  printed  across  the  top  of  the 
chart  in  large  letters,  such  as  the  following:  "Vegetables 
that  grow  below  the  ground";  "Vegetables  whose  leaves 
we  eat";  "Flowers  from  mother's  garden";  "Fruits  that 
are  raised  in  our  State."  The  purpose  of  the  chart  is  ex- 
plained to  the  children  and  they  are  asked  to  bring  appro- 
priate pictures.  Catalogues  of  seedsmen  and  advertisements 
in  magazines  and  papers  will  furnish  abundance  of  material. 
The  children  may  cut  out  the  pictures  and  paste  them  on 
the  chart. 


124  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Penny  packets  of  seeds.  One  way  to  induce  the  children 
to  start  a  garden  is  to  give  them  an  opportunity  to  secure 
seeds  at  a  penny  a  packet.  A  number  of  firms  are  now  selling 
seeds  to  children  at  this  rate.  One  of  the  best-known  is 
the  Children's  Flower  Mission,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio.  The 
teacher  sends  to  the  firm  asking  for  as  many  order  blanks 
as  she  thinks  she  can  use.  Or  a  better  way  is  for  all  the 
teachers  in  a  building  or  in  a  town  to  send  together.  These 
blanks  are  sent  free.  They  are  given  out  to  the  children, 
who  take  them  home  and,  after  talking  the  matter  over  with 
their  parents,  fill  out  the  blanks  and  bring  them  to  school 
with  the  money.  The  blanks  and  money  are  sent  to  Cleve- 
land, and  after  a  short  time  the  seeds  are  sent  back  to  cor- 
respond with  the  orders.  The  express  is  paid  by  the  firm, 
so  that  the  teacher  has  no  expenses  involved.  After  the 
children  have  bought  their  seeds,  they  will  usually  plant 
them  and  care  for  the  plants.  At  the  proper  time  lessons 
should  be  given  on  the  various  steps  in  gardening. 

Plans  of  gardens.  In  the  late  winter  or  early  spring  the 
teacher  may  help  the  children  make  plans  of  their  gardens. 
Each  child  should  draw  on  a  paper  lines  to  represent  the 
boundaries  of  his  garden.  On  this  may  be  drawn  lines  to 
represent  rows,  and  on  these  may  be  written  the  names  of 
the  seeds  to  be  planted  and  the  distances  between  the  rows. 
In  this  way  the  child  can  plan  just  what  he  is  to  plant,  and 
how  many  rows  of  each  vegetable,  so  that  his  plans  may  be 
made  to  agree  with  the  size  of  his  garden. 

A  second  lesson  may  be  given  on  the  preparation  of  the 
soil.  The  two  chief  things  to  consider  here  are  the  enrich- 
ment of  the  soil  by  fertilizer  or  manure  and  the  spading  of 
ihe  soil  and  getting  it  ready  for  the  seeds. 

A  third  lesson  may  be  given  on  how  to  plant  seeds.  This 
may  be  worked  out  as  follows:  — 


GARDENING  125 

TOPIC:  PLANTING  SEEDS  (SPRING) 

Materials:  Box  of  dirt,  seeds,  hand  weeder.  The  children  should 
be  allowed  to  do  the  various  things  with  the  seeds  and  dirt  as 
the  lesson  progresses. 

Child's  problem. 

What  is  the  proper  way  to  plant  radish  seeds? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Getting  soil  fine. 

2.  Depth  of  planting  seed. 

3.  Distance  apart. 

A.  Between  rows. 

B.  In  rows. 

4.  Time  of  planting. 

5.  Covering. 

6.  Firming  soil. 

Application. 

This  lesson  should  be  given  at  the  prooer  time  for  planting  seeds 
outdoors,  so  that  the  children  may  plant  seeds  at  once  in  their 
home  gardens. 

Correlated  work. 
Literature. 

Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse,  page  14. 
Lovejoy,  Poetry  of  the  Seasons,  page  45. 
McMurry  and  Cook,  Songs  of  Tree-Top  and  Meadow,  pages 
12,  110. 

Transplanting  and  thinning.  When  the  time  comes,  for 
transplanting  and  thinning,  lessons  should  be  given  on  the 
proper  way  to  do  them,  using  seedlings  raised  in  the  school- 
room as  a  result  of  the  previous  lesson.  These  lessons  should 
be  given  at  the  proper  time  to  do  the  work  outdoors,  so 
that  the  children  may  apply  the  lessons  at  once.  The  teacher 
should  ask  the  children  about  their  gardens  and  remind 
them  at  the  appropriate  times  of  the  things  to  be  done. 

Garden  calendar.  Additional  interest  may  be  aroused  in 
the  garden  work  by  keeping  a  garden  calendar  on  which 


126  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

the  children  may  record  the  happenings  in  their  garden.   In 
its  simplest  form  it  may  consist  of  the  following  columns :  — 


Garden  activity  observed 

Date 

Name  of  child  first  reporting 

3.  House  plants  in  the  schoolroom 

Flowers  from  bulbs.  One  of  the  most  satisfactory  means 
of  securing  flowers  in  the  winter  is  through  the  use  of  bulbs. 
All  the  work  can  be  done  by  the  children  and  the  whole 
cycle  may  be  carried  on  during  the  school  year.  These 
bulbs  may  be  started  at  any  time  in  the  autumn  or  early 
winter.  For  this  purpose  secure  some  flower  pots,  —  six 
inches  or  larger,  —  ordinary  garden  soil,  and  bulbs.  The 
drainage  holes  in  the  flower  pots  should  be  covered  with 
something  which  will  allow  the  water  to  drain  out,  but  keep 
the  soil  in.  Fill  with  dirt  to  within  a  half -inch  of  the  top 
and  plant  the  bulb  so  that  the  tip  is  barely  covered.  Water 
it  thoroughly.  The  pot  must  be  put  in  a  location  that  meets 
two  requirements;  it  must  be  dark  and  cold.  The  Chinese 
lily,  paper-white  narcissus,  and  Roman  hyacinth  cannot 
stand  freezing,  but  the  daffodil  and  Dutch  hyacinth  can. 
Usually  some  place  can  be  found  in  the  basement,  but  it 
must  not  be  where  the  furnace  keeps  it  warm.  Bulbs  that 
can  stand  freezing  may  be  placed  outdoors  on  a  board  and 
covered  with  leaves  or  straw  with  some  weight  to  keep  them 
on.  During  this  period  the  soil  must  be  kept  moist.  Usually 
if  they  are  well  watered  when  put  away  and  then  kept 
covered,  this  watering  will  be  sufficient. 

During  this  period  a  root  system  is  forming,  so  that  when 
the  plant  is  brought  into  a  light,  warm  room,  the  stem  grows 


GARDENING 


127 


quickly.  The  length  of  time  required  for  these  roots  to  form 
varies  according  to  the  bulb.  The  time  to  keep  out  the  vari- 
ous bulbs  before  they  may  be  brought  in  is  given  below  in 
a  table.  This  is  the  least  time.  They  may  be  kept  as  much 
longer  as  desired.  When  brought  in,  they  should  be  cared 
for  like  any  ordinary  house  plant. 

A  convenient  way  for  school  use  is  to  put  the  bulbs  away 
in  October  or  November,  and  bring  them  in  just  after  the 
Christmas  vacation.  The  bulbs  which  the  author  has  found 
most  satisfactory  for  school  use  are  given  below.  In  order 
to  secure  a  continuous  succession  of  bloom,  either  different 
kinds  of  bulbs  may  be  chosen,  or  the  same  kind  may  be 
brought  in  at  different  times. 


Name 

Time  to  keep  in 
dark 

Time  to  bloom 
after  brought  to 
light 

Time  remaining 
in  bloom 

Chinese  lily  
Paper-white 
narcissus  

2  weeks 
5-  6  weeks 

5-6  weeks 
6-6  weeks 

3  weeks 
3-4  weeks 

White  Roman 

7_  g  weeks 

3-4  weeks 

3—4  weeks 

Daffodils  

8-12  weeks 

4-6  weeks 

2-3  weeks 

Dutch  hyacinth  .... 

10-11  weeks 

6-7  weeks 

2  weeks 

Chinese  lily  in  pebbles.  The  Chinese  lily  may  be  very 
successfully  grown  in  a  dish  containing  some  pebbles  and 
water.  A  shallow  dish  is  half  filled  with  pebbles  and  the 
bulbs  are  placed  among  them  so  as  to  be  supported  by  them. 
Water  is  added  till  it  touches  the  bottom  of  the  bulb.  The 
dish  is  placed  in  a  dark  closet  for  about  two  weeks,  during 
which  time  the  roots  grow,  and  then  the  dish  is  brought  to 
the  light.  Water  should  be  added  occasionally  so  as  to  keep 
the  base  of  the  bulb  wet. 


128  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Window  boxes.  To  grow  house  plants  in  the  schoolroom 
large  flower  pots  or  window  boxes  may  be  used.  These 
window  boxes  can  be  made  by  the  boys  in  the  manual- 
training  department.  Among  the  best  plants  to  grow  in 
the  schoolroom  are  ferns,  asparagus  sprengeri,  and  gerani- 
ums. For  shady  situations,  aspidistra,  begonia,  English  ivy, 
oxalis,  and  primroses  also  do  well.  Heliotrope,  wandering 
Jew,  and  fuchsia  are  well  adapted  for  sunny  locations.  The 
chief  things  to  consider  in  the  care  of  house  plants  are  to  keep 
them  watered  and  to  protect  them  on  cold  winter  nights. 

Propagation  of  house  plants.  Geraniums  may  be  easily 
raised  by  means  of  soft-wood  cuttings  taken  from  the 
growing  part  of  the  stem.  If  only  a  few  cuttings  are  to  be 
raised,  an  ordinary  flower  pot  may  be  used.  This  should  be 
partly  filled  with  clean  moist  sand  well  pressed  down.  To 
make  the  cutting,  a  growing  tip  two  to  four  inches  long  is 
cut  just  below  a  node.  The  lower  leaves  are  removed  so  as 
to  leave  at  least  an  inch  of  free  stem.  To  reduce  the  evapo- 
rating surface  still  more,  it  is  well  to  cut  off  about  half  of 
each  of  the  remaining  leaves.  By  means  of  a  knife  an  inci- 
sion is  made  in  the  sand,  and  into  this  the  cutting  is  inserted 
for  about  an  inch  and  the  sand  pressed  firmly  about  it. 
To  prevent  too  much  evaporation  a  glass  jar  or  tumbler  is 
inverted  over  the  cutting,  leaving  it  raised  a  trifle  on  one 
side  to  admit  air.  The  sand  should  be  kept  moist.  The 
cutting  should  be  left  till  new  leaves  begin  to  form.  This  is 
evidence  that  new  roots  have  formed  and  the  plant  may  be 
then  transplanted. 

If  it  is  desired  to  raise  a  large  number  of  cuttings,  a  win- 
dow box  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  flower  pot.  This  may 
be  covered  with  a  pane  of  glass. 

Other  plants  that  may  be  raised  in  this  way  are  wander- 
ing Jew,  begonia,  carnation,  chrysanthemum,  coleus,  rose, 
and  fuchsia. 


GARDENING  129 

Cuttings  of  the  wandering  Jew  and  of  some  geraniums 
may  be  successfully  started  in  a  tumbler  filled  with  water, 
and  then  transplanted  after  the  roots  have  formed. 

This  work  can  all  be  done  by  the  children,  and  after  the 
cuttings  have  become  well  started  in  the  schoolroom,  they 
may  be  taken  home  by  the  children  and  cared  for. 

4.  Experiments  with  plants 

A.  Raising  plants.  A  great  amount  of  interesting  and 
instructive  work  can  be  done  with  seeds  and  seedlings  in  the 
schoolroom.  But  this  work  should  all  be  done  with  a  definite 
purpose.  It  is  not  sufficient  merely  to  plant  seeds  and  then 
let  the  seedlings  die  from  neglect.  The  work  should  be  clearly 
motivated  from  the  start.  The  following  purposes  are  sug- 
gested to  guide  this  work:  — 

1.  To  raise  mature  plants  and  secure  the  products  in  the 
schoolroom.     Radishes  may  be  matured  here  large 
enough  to  eat,  and  nasturtium  flowers  may  be  secured. 

2.  To  raise  seedlings  early  in  the  season  so  that  later  they 
may  be  taken  home  and  transplanted  in  the  children's 
gardens.   Among  those  that  can  be  raised  in  this  way 
are  lettuce,  cabbage,  tomatoes,  and  a  great  variety  of 
flowers. 

3.  To  see  the  changes  that  take  place  in  the  parts  of  the 
seed  and  seedlings  as  the  plant  grows.    Have  some 
device  by  means  of  which  the  growth  of  the  root  may 
be  watched.  One  very  simple  way  is  to  take  a  tumbler 
and  roll  up  a  piece  of  blotting-paper  so  that  it  just 
fits  the  tumbler.    Fill  the  space  in  the  center  of  the 
blotting-paper  with  moist  sand.     Plant  some  seeds, 
such  as  peas,  corn,  or  beans,  between  the  blotting- 
paper  and  the  glass. 

Another  way  is  to  put  a  piece  of  wet  blotting-paper  in 
a  plate.  On  this  put  some  seeds,  then  cover  with  another 


130  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

piece  of  moist  blotting-paper  and  invert  another  plate  over 
this.  When  it  is  desired  to  watch  the  progress  of  the  seeds, 
the  plate  and  the  blotting-paper  may  be  lifted. 

Another  interesting  device  which  enables  one  to  watch 
the  early  stages  of  growth  is  a  pocket  garden  which  the 
children  can  make.  Secure  two  pieces  of  glass  the  same  size 
(old  negatives  are  very  satisfactory)  and  a  piece  of  blot- 
ting-paper the  same  size  as  the  glass.  Moisten  the  paper 
and  lay  it  on  one  of  the  pieces  of  glass.  On  this  put  a  few 
small  seeds,  such  as  radish  or  lettuce.  Cut  some  narrow 
strips  of  blotting-paper  and  place  them  around  the  edge  of 
the  large  piece  two  deep,  so  as  to  form  an  enclosure.  Put 
the  other  piece  of  glass  over  this  and  slip  on  a  couple  of 
rubber  bands  to  hold  all  together.  When  the  paper  be- 
comes dry,  stand  the  glass  on  edge  in  some  water  for  a 
few  minutes.  Plants  may  be  grown  for  two  weeks  in  this 
little  pocket  garden. 

Have  the  children  make  a  series  of  drawings,  showing  the 
changes  in  the  seeds  and  seedlings.  First  soak  some  beans 
overnight.  Let  the  children  open  them  and  draw  the  parts 
of  the  seed.  Have  another  drawing  made  when  the  root 
first  comes  out  of  the  seed.  One  drawing  should  show  the 
seedling  just  as  it  first  comes  through  the  soil.  Other 
drawings  should  be  made  whenever  any  noticeable  change 
occurs  in  the  seedling.  These  drawings  should  be  placed 
side  by  side  on  a  large  sheet  of  paper  or  else  arranged  in 
a  little  booklet.  The  date  should  be  placed  under  each 
drawing.  These  drawings  may  be  made  either  with  or- 
dinary pencil,  colored  crayons,  or  water-colors.  Children 
are  more  interested  to  work  with  colors. 

4-  Eggshell  garden.  The  young  children  will  be  much 
interested  in  an  eggshell  garden.  Each  child  is  asked  to 
bring  an  eggshell  to  school.  On  the  outside  of  each  shell  is 
written  the  name  of  the  child.  A  hole  is  punched  in  the 


GARDENING  131 

bottom  of  the  shell  for  drainage  and  the  shell  filled  with 
soil.  Each  child  plants  some  small  seeds  in  his  shell.  Differ- 
ent children  may  plant  different  seeds.  Among  the  best  to 
plant  are  pepper-grass,  lettuce,  radish,  cabbage,  wheat,  and 
buckwheat.  The  eggshells  may  be  kept  in  a  pan  filled  with 
soil  or  sawdust. 

B.  Germination  experiments.  Another  set  of  studies  may 
be  carried  on  to  learn  some  facts  regarding  germination. 

1.   To  show  the  conditions  needed  for  germination. 

a.  To  show  the  conditions  of  moisture,  put  some 
blotting-paper  in  the  bottom  of  three  tumblers. 
Moisten  one  slightly,  a  second  moderately,  and  the 
third  so  that  a  little  water  stands  on  the  paper. 
Put  seeds  in  each  tumbler  and  cover  by  putting 
another  tumbler  over  each.    Allow  to  stand  for  a 
week  or  longer  and  note  the  differences  in  the  three 
tumblers. 

b.  To  show  that  air  is  necessary,  fill  one  tumbler  half 
full  of  water  and  in  another  put  a  moist  piece  of 
blotting-paper.    Put  seeds  in  both  tumblers.   Keep 
the  paper  in  the  second  tumbler  moist  and  allow  to 
stand. 

2.   To  learn  the  best  depth  at  which  to  plant  seeds. 

Fill  a  shallow  box  about  seven  or  eight  inches  deep 
with  soil.  In  one  corner  plant  three  seeds  of  lettuce, 
three  of  radish,  and  three  of  peas  one  inch  deep.  In  a 
second  corner,  plant  three  of  each,  two  inches  deep; 
in  a  third  corner  plant  three  of  each,  four  inches  deep; 
in  the  fourth  corner  plant  three  of  each  six  inches  deep. 
Mark  on  each  corner  the  depth  planted.  Keep  the 
soil  moist.  Record  the  time  when  the  first  plants  of 
each  kind  appear  in  each  corner.  Record  in  the  form 
of  a  table  on  the  board.  At  which  depth  do  the  plants 
first  come  up?  At  which  depth  do  most  come  up?  Is 


132  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

there  any  depth  at  which  none  come  up?  The  experi- 
ment may  also  be  performed  in  a  quart  canning-jar. 
The  jar  is  filled  with  sand  and  the  seeds  planted  at 
varying  depths  next  to  the  glass.  This  allows  their 
growth  to  be  watched. 

3.  To  test  the  vitality  of  seeds  to  see  what  per  cent  will 
germinate. 

Lay  a  piece  of  moist  blotting-paper  or  cloth  on  a 
plate.  Mark  it  off  into  squares.  In  each  square  put 
the  various  seeds  to  be  tested,  taking  a  larger  number 
for  the  smaller  seeds.  Count  them.  Cover  with  another 
piece  of  moist  blotting-paper  or  cloth.  Invert  another 
plate  over  this.  Allow  to  stand  for  a  couple  of  weeks, 
keeping  the  paper  moist.  Figure  out  the  percentage 
of  each  kind  of  seed  that  germinates. 

4.  To  learn  how  the  squash  seedlings  get  out  of  the  seed  coat. 

Take  the  same  kind  of  apparatus  as  that  described 
in  the  last  experiment.  Plant  some  squash  seeds  in  it. 
Examine  every  day.  Have  the  children  make  drawings 
of  the  different  stages  till  the  seedling  is  free  from  the 
seed  coat. 

5.  To  learn  what  becomes  of  the  cotyledons  when  the  seed 
germinates. 

Plant  some  seeds  of  peas  and  beans  in  a  box  or 
tumbler  filled  with  soil  or  saw  dust.  When  the  plants 
are  an  inch  or  two  high,  carefully  pull  up  the  whole 
plant  and  find  the  cotyledons.  The  children  may 
make  a  drawing  showing  the  difference. 

C.  Work  of  roots. 

1.  Root  hairs.  The  work  of  absorbing  moisture  is  done 
by  the  root  hairs.  To  show  these,  put  two  thicknesses 
of  moist  blotting-paper  in  the  bottom  of  a  tumbler. 
On  this  place  a  few  radish  seeds.  Cover  with  another 
tumbler.  Keep  the  paper  moist.  Notice  the  location 


GARDENING  133 

and  variation  in  the  length  of  the  root  hairs.  Have  the 
children  draw  the  root  hairs. 

2.  Direction  of  growth.    In  order  to  show  the  direction  in 
which  the  root  of  a  seedling  grows,  plant  some  radish 
seeds  in  the  pocket  garden  described  on  page  130. 
Stand  the  garden  on  edge.  When  the  roots  are  about  a 
half -inch  long,  turn  the  garden  one  fourth  way  round. 
Notice  the  effect  on  the  tip  of  the  root  and  how  long 
it  takes  before  the  effect  is  shown.     Turn  through 
another  ninety  degrees  and  allow  to  stand  for  a  day. 
Turn  several  times  more.     Have  the  children  make 
drawings  showing  the  various  positions  of  the  root. 

3.  Food  storage  in  roots  —  carrot  basket.  Some  roots  serve 
the  purpose  of  storing  food.    This  may  be  nicely  illus- 
trated by  making  a  carrot  basket.     Cut  a  carrot  in 
two  crosswise  about  in  the  middle.   Take  the  top  half 
and  hollow  out  the  center  from  the  cut  end,  leaving  a 
shell  of  the  root  around  the  outside.    Fill  this  with 
water.    Suspend  this  by  means  of  strings  or  wires  in 
the  window.    Keep  the  carrot  filled  with  water  and 
in  a  short  time  the  leaves  will  begin  to  grow  out  and 
will  curve  up  around  the  carrot  making  a  very  attrac- 
tive object. 

D.  Work  of  the  stem. 

1.  Passage  of  sap  up  the  stem.  The  two  chief  duties  of  the 
stem  are  to  conduct  liquids  and  to  hold  up  the  leaves 
to  the  sunlight.     To  show  the  work  in  conducting 
liquids,  take  a  piece  of  a  twig  of  a  tree  about  the  size 
of  a  lead  pencil  and  put  one  end  in  red  ink.   Allow  to 
stand  for  a  few  hours.    Then  with  a  jack-knife  make 
sections  across  the  part  of  the  stem  that  was  above  the 
ink.  The  red  ring  shows  where  the  sap  goes  up  the  stem. 

2.  -Direction  of  growth.    Plant  some  sunflower  seed  in  a 
flower  pot  filled  with  soil.   When  the  young  plants  are 


134  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

about  three  inches  high,  place  the  flower  pot  on  its 
side  and  allow  to  remain  a  few  days.  Notice  the  direc- 
tion of  growth  of  the  stem. 

E.  Work  of  the  leaf.  The  two  chief  duties  of  the  leaf  are 
transpiration  and  starch-making.  To  show  the  passage  of 
water  through  the  leaf,  put  the  end  of  a  spray  of  leaves 
into  some  red  ink.  Notice  through  what  parts  of  the  leaf 
the  red  ink  passes. 

1.  Transpiration.    To  show  transpiration,  fill  a  tumbler 
with  water;  over  it  put  a  piece  of  paper.   Make  a  hole 
in  the  center  of  the  paper  and  put  the  stem  of  a  large 
leaf  through  it.    Invert  a  clean  tumbler  over  the  leaf 
and  put  in  a  sunny  position.    Notice  what  forms  on 
the  sides  of  the  tumbler.  How  long  does  it  take  before 
it  begins  to  form?   Put  in  a  shady  place  and  see  how 
long  it  takes. 

2.  Light  and  starch-making.  Experiments  to  illustrate  the 
process  of  starch-making  are  too  difficult  to  perform 
in  the  ordinary  schoolroom,  but  one  simple  experiment 
may  be  performed  out  of  doors  to  show  the  need  of 
sunlight  in  the  process  of  starch-making.    Put  a  piece 
of  board  on  the  grass.    At  the  end  of  a  week  lift  the 
board  and  look  at  the  grass.    What  change  has  taken 
place?   Remove  the  board  and  notice  the  grass  at  the 
end  of  another  week.     What  does  this  experiment 
show? 

3.  Leaf  exposure  to  sunlight.     Notice  the  tips  of  both 
horizontal   and   vertical   branches   on   the   elm   and 
maple.     Note  the  position  of  the  leaf  surface  with 
reference  to  the  light,  and  note  how  the  petioles  help 
the  surfaces  to  attain  this  position.     Some  of  these 
branches  may  be  cut  off  and  brought  into  the  school- 
room to  study.   Notice  also  the  position  of  leaves  of  a 
vine  growing  on  a  building. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

LESSONS  WITH  WEEDS 

Motivation.  Weeds  touch  the  child's  life  in  three  ways: 
they  are  one  of  the  most  common  forms  of  plant  life  that 
he  sees  on  every  hand;  they  are  an  enemy  of  his  garden; 
and  some  weeds  are  poisonous  either  to  touch  or  to  taste. 
These  three  points  of  contact  suggest  the  lines  along  which 
the  work  with  weeds  may  proceed:  the  identification  and 
control  of  common  weeds.  The  application  is  found  in  the 
ability  of  the  child  to  go  out  and  name  the  common  weeds, 
and  in  his  applying  proper  methods  to  control  the  weeds 
in  his  garden. 

Collections.  Weeds  are  so  common  that  there  is  no 
trouble  in  securing  an  abundance  of  materials.  An  interest- 
ing line  of  work  is  to  have  two  types  of  collections  made, 
one  of  the  plants  and  one  of  the  seeds.  In  starting  a  collec- 
tion some  definite  problem  should  be  suggested,  such  as  to 
make  a  collection  of  the  weeds  found  in  the  garden,  or  those 
found  by  the  roadside,  or  in  vacant  lots,  or  in  the  cornfield. 
The  plants  may  be  pressed  the  same  as  leaves,  as  explained 
on  page  90. 

To  mount  the  weeds  secure  pieces  of  heavy  paper  or  light 
cardboard  of  some  uniform  size.  Place  the  weed  on  this  and 
fasten  it  by  means  of  narrow  strips  of  gummed  paper, 
which  should  be  put  over  the  parts  of  the  plants  in  several 
places  and  stuck  to  the  cardboard.  Beneath  each  specimen 
write  the  name  of  the  plant,  the  place  where  collected,  and 
other  points  of  interest. 

If"  one  wishes  a  more  permanent  mount,  a  piece  of  glass 
may  be  placed  over  the  specimen  and  the  glass  and  card- 


136  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

board  fastened  together  around  the  edge  with  passe- 
partout binding  paper. 

In  a  few  years  a  collection  of  most  of  the  common  weeds 
may  be  obtained.  In  case  any  specimens  of  either  plants  or 
seeds  cannot  be  identified  by  means  of  the  books  at  hand, 
they  may  be  sent  to  the  State  Agricultural  College. 

Seed  collections.  Collections  may  also  be  made  of  weed 
seeds.  These  may  be  placed  in  small  vials,  which  can  be 
mounted  on  cardboard.  Another  very  satisfactory  method 
of  keeping  the  seeds  is  to  mount  them  between  two  pieces 
of  glass.  For  this  purpose  secure  two  pieces  of  glass  of  the 
same  size  (old  negatives  serve  the  purpose  nicely),  and  a 
piece  of  cardboard  of  the  same  size,  but  of  extra  thickness. 
Plaster-board  sold  at  the  lumber  dealers,  or  tarboard  obtain- 
able at  the  printing  offices,  may  be  used.  In  this  bore  a 
series  of  holes  in  regular  order  about  one-half  inch  in  diam- 
eter. In  order  to  get  the  holes  clean-cut,  after  boring  part- 
way through  on  one  side  of  the  cardboard,  remove  the 
bit  and  finish  the  hole  by  boring  from  the  other  side.  The 
holes  may  also  be  made  by  a  gun  punch  used  in  cutting 
wads  for  shells.  Glue  a  piece  of  white  paper  to  one  side  of 
the  cardboard. 

When  as  many  kinds  of  seeds  have  been  collected  as 
there  are  holes  in  the  cardboard,  place  a  piece  of  glass  on 
the  table,  and  on  the  glass  put  the  cardboard.  Place  the 
weed  seeds  in  the  holes  and  write  the  name  below  each 
hole.  Then  put  the  other  piece  of  glass  on  top  and  bind 
the  two  pieces  together  at  the  edges  with  passe-partout 
binding  paper  or  adhesive  tape.  This  gives  a  very  conven- 
ient mount.  It  is  compact  and  the  seeds  can  easily  be  seen 
and  examined  with  a  magnifying  glass.  The  Specialty 
Manufacturing  Company,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  sells  for 
fifteen  cents  a  complete  outfit  of  this  kind  for  mounting 
twenty-four  kinds  of  seeds. 


LESSONS  WITH  WEEDS  137 

Cases  of  weed  seeds  mounted  in  this  way  have  been  put 
up  for  sale  by  the  Weed  Seed  Laboratory,  State  Agricul- 
tural College,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota.  Each  case  contains 
twenty-four  kinds  of  seeds.  So  far  four  cases  have  been 
mounted.  The  price  is  fifty  cents  per  case.  These  are  very 
helpful  in  identifying  the  seeds  that  the  children  bring. 
Perhaps  the  children  might  be  interested  to  raise  the 
money  in  some  way  to  buy  the  cases,  or  they  might  be 
bought  by  the  school  board. 

Correlation.  There  are  many  opportunities  for  correla- 
tion in  connection  with  art  in  having  the  children  make 
drawings  of  the  various  parts  of  the  plant.  It  adds  interest 
to  have  the  children  make  booklets,  in  which  may  be  kept 
a  series  of  drawings  of  different  weeds.  Small  pieces  of  the 
weed  plant  may  be  pressed  and  mounted  in  these  booklets 
together  with  the  drawings.  If  desired,  the  language  work 
may  be  correlated  here  and  brief  compositions  on  weeds 
may  be  kept  in  the  same  booklet. 

Arithmetic.  A  number  of  problems  relative  to  the  repro- 
ductive power  of  weeds  may  be  given. 

1.  It  has  been  estimated  that  a  single  plant  of  pigweed  may  pro- 
duce 300,000  seeds.  If  each  seed  grows  to  form  a  plant  bearing 
the  same  number  of  seeds  and  this  continued  year  after  year, 
how  many  seeds  would  there  be  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  season? 

2.  A  single  plant  of  Indian  mallow  was  found  to  produce  2480 
seeds,  and  to  cover  315  square  inches  of  space.    If  each  seed 
should  form  a  plant  of  the  average  size  bearing  the  above 
number  of  seeds,  how  much  space  would  these  plants  cover 
the  next  season?  How  much  space  the  season  following  this? 

3.  Take  some  common  weed  and  estimate  the  number  of  seeds 
it  produces  and  the  area  covered  by  one  plant,  and  then  com- 
pute the  area  covered  by  its  descendants  at  the  end  of  the 
third  season. 

Most  of  the  work  with  weeds  is  best  carried  on  in  the 
grammar  grades,  although  a  little  might  be  done  in  the 


138  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

upper  intermediate  grades.  The  autumn  is  the  best  time  on 
account  of  the  great  abundance  of  material  at  that  time. 
In  the  spring,  when  the  gardens  are  started,  attention  may 
be  called  to  the  best  methods  of  keeping  weeds  out  of  the 
garden. 

Following  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  main  points  to  be 
brought  out  in  the  study  of  a  particular  weed:  — 

1.  Identification. 

A.  By  size  and  general  form. 

B.  By  leaves. 

C.  By  flowers. 

D.  By  fruit. 

E.  By  habits  of  growth. 

2.  Harm  done. 

3.  Kind  (annual,  biennial,  or  perennial). 

4.  Troublesome  characters  of  seeds. 

A.  Number  on  a  plant. 

B.  Adaptation  for  dispersal. 

C.  Number  of  years  retain  vitality. 

5.  Means  of  control. 

Lessons  on  weeds 
TOPIC:  POISON  IVY 

Materials:  Leaves  and  fruit  (if  in  season)  of  woodbine  and  poison 
ivy.  The  leaf  of  the  ivy  may  be  collected  with  gloves  on  and  put 
into  a  glass  jar  and  the  cover  put  on.  It  will  be  better  if  a  field 
trip  can  be  taken. 

Child's  problem. 

How  may  we  tell  poison  ivy  from  woodbine,  so  that  we  may 
avoid  being  poisoned  by  it? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Places  where  they  grow. 

2.  Leaves. 

A.  Number  of  leaflets. 

B.  Margin  of  leaflets. 

C.  Size  and  shape  of  leaflets. 

D.  Petioles. 


LESSONS  WITH  WEEDS  139 

3.  Color  of  fruit. 

4.  Height  to  which  plant  grows. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  be  on  the  watch  for  ivy,  and  if  they  see  any 
to  report  to  the  class  where.  Have  a  map  made  of  the  vicinity 
of  the  school  and  on  this  mark  the  places  where  the  ivy  grows. 
Have  a  collection  of  poisonous  plants  made. 

Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  the  children  make  drawing  of  the  two  leaves  side  by  side. 

This  should  be  followed  by  another  lesson  on  what  to  do  in  case 
of  poisoning  by  ivy. 

TOPICS:  PIGWEED  AND  LAMB'S  QUARTERS  (AUTUMN) 

Materials:  Specimen  of  a  whole  plant  of  each;  several  specimens 
of  leaves  and  fruit. 

Child's  problem. 

How  may  the  rough  pigweed  and  lamb's  quarters  be  told  apart? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Differences  in  leaves. 

2.  In  fruit. 

3.  In  seeds. 

4.  In  form  of  plant. 

Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  bring  a  leaf  of  eacH  kind  of  plant.  Have  a 
collection  made  of  weeds  of  the  garden  (both  plants  and 


Correlated  work. 
Art. 

Have  drawings  made  of  leaves  of  both  plants;  also  of  seeds 
enlarged  as  seen  under  a  magnifying  glass. 

TOPIC:  NUMBER  OF  SEEDS  ON  A  PLANT  (AUTUMN) 

Child's  problem. 

How  many  seeds  does  a  single  plant  of  burdock  (or  other  plant) 
produce? 


140  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Materials  and  method:  Have  an  entire  plant  of  several  kinds  of 
weeds  brought  into  the  schoolroom.  Divide  the  children  into  as 
many  groups  as  there  are  kinds  of  weeds  to  be  studied,  and  dis- 
tribute among  them  portions  of  the  plant.  Or  if  the  plant  is  a 
large  one,  the  whole  school  may  work  on  the  same  plant.  Show 
them  how  to  count  a  small  portion  carefully,  and  then  estimate 
the  proportions  of  the  whole  that  this  part  is.  Put  the  results 
on  the  board  and  add  all  together,  so  as  to  get  the  total  number 
of  seeds  on  the  plant. 

Correlated  work. 
Arithmetic. 

Ask  them  to  determine  for  each  plant  the  number  of  seeds 
that  might  be  produced  in  three  years  if  all  the  seeds  grew 
and  bore  the  same  number  of  plants  as  this  one. 

Application. 

Ask  each  child  to  find  a  plant  outdoors  like  the  one  he  has  been 
studying  and  estimate  the  area  of  ground  it  covers.  Take  the 
average  of  the  reports  given  by  the  children.  Then  ask  them 
to  figure  out  what  area  would  be  occupied  by  the  plants  grow- 
ing from  the  seeds  on  a  single  plant?  What  area  the  next  sea- 
son following? 

To  show  the  part  that  birds  play  in  eating  weed  seeds,  have  the 
children  gather  the  same  kind  of  weeds  in  the  spring  and  estimate 
the  number  of  seeds  found  then.  When  the  weeds  are  gathered, 
look  closely  on  the  ground  beneath  to  see  if  many  seeds  are  found. 

Seeds  in  soil.  To  show  the  abundance  of  weed  seeds  in 
almost  all  kinds  of  soils,  have  small  quantities  of  soils 
brought  in  from  a  variety  of  situations:  from  the  garden; 
from  the  edge  of  a  pond;  from  different  levels  in  a  cellar 
that  is  being  dug;  from  the  roadside;  from  a  vacant  lot,  etc. 
Place  in  separate  flower  pots.  Keep  in  a  warm  place,  water 
the  soil,  and  notice  how  many  plants  come  up. 


PART  IV 
HYGIENE 


CHAPTER  XIV 

PRINCIPLES  UNDERLYING  THE  TEACHING  OF  HYGIENE 

Importance.  The  importance  of  health  in  everything  that 
one  undertakes  in  life,  and  hence  the  supreme  importance 
of  teaching  boys  and  girls  how  to  care  for  their  health,  is 
self-evident.  Hygiene  is  the  most  important  subject  in  the 
school  curriculum.  All  that  the  child  may  learn  about 
history  and  geography  fades  into  insignificance  compared 
with  the  tremendous  value  of  health.  And  yet,  in  spite  of 
its  overshadowing  importance,  it  is  one  of  the  most  neglected 
subjects  in  the  curriculum.  It  is  a  sad  reflection  upon  the 
efficiency  of  our  school  system  that  the  most  vital  subject 
should  receive  so  little  attention. 

Results  in  the  past.  It  seems  to  be  the  general  consensus 
of  opinion  of  careful  observers  that  the  teaching  of  physi- 
ology and  hygiene  in  the  schools  has  largely  been  a  failure, 
when  judged  by  the  results  obtained  in  the  lives  of  the 
children.  If  the  teaching  of  hygiene  is  to  be  effective,  it 
must  show  its  effect  upon  the  habits  of  living  practiced  by 
boys  and  girls.  Judged  on  this  basis,  physiology  teaching 
has  not  proved  successful. 

As  a  definite  illustration  of  this  fact  the  following  figures 
will  be  of  interest.  Dr.  Hoag  was  employed  by  the  Minne- 
sota State  Board  of  Health  to  travel  through  the  State  and 
visit  the  schools  to  ascertain  the  general  health  conditions 
and  to  recommend  remedies.  In  the  towns  that  he  visited, 
he  secured  information  regarding  the  health  habits  of  the 
children.  When  the  results  obtained  from  several  thousand 
children  in  a  number  of  cities  and  towns  were  tabulated, 
the  following  figures  were  found:  — 


144  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Thirty-seven  per  cent  had  no  ventilation  of  bedroom. 
Only  nineteen  per  cent  used  a  toothbrush  daily. 
Nine  per  cent  used  a  common  toothbrush. 
Fifty  per  cent  had  never  been  to  a  dentist. 
Seventy-one  per  cent  used  coffee  daily. 
Eighty-two  had  no  fruit  for  breakfast. 

The  conditions  found  in  each  of  the  towns  were  approxi- 
mately the  same.  When  one  considers  the  appalling  lack  of 
proper  habits  regarding  the  great  essentials  of  air,  food,  and 
cleanliness  displayed  by  these  results,  the  crying  need  of 
teaching  children  the  proper  habits  of  living  is  very  evident. 

Another  indication  that  the  American  people  are  not  fol- 
lowing hygienic  habits  of  living  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the 
death-rate  for  people  over  forty  years  of  age  is  increasing 
in  the  United  States,  although  it  is  decreasing  in  Europe. 

Causes  for  failure.  It  is  not  difficult  to  find  some  of  the 
reasons  for  the  failure  of  physiology  teaching.  In  the  first 
place,  it  has  been  anatomy  and  physiology  that  have  been 
taught,  and  not  hygiene,  and  so  the  whole  point  has  been 
missed.  Teachers  are  frequently  not  prepared  to  teach  the 
subject  and  dislike  it,  and  this  feeling  is  caught  by  the 
children.  The  excuse  has  sometimes  been  given  that  time 
enough  could  not  be  found  to  teach  it.  This,  of  course, 
simply  shows  lack  of  understanding  of  the  importance  of 
the  subject.  The  most  important  things  must  be  taught, 
and  minor  things  must  give  way. 

Many  of  the  textbooks  used  have  been  poorly  adapted 
to  the  child  in  every  way,  in  the  topics  treated  and  in  the 
method  of  treatment.  In  some  cases  an  excessive  amount 
of  time  devoted  to  temperance  physiology  has  given  the 
children  a  dislike  for  the  subject,  and  has  given  a  wrong 
perspective  of  the  whole  subject  of  hygiene. 

Essentials  for  good  teaching:  (1)  Formation  of  proper 
habits.  We  will  now  pass  from  negative  to  positive  considera- 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HYGIENE  145 

tions,  and  discuss  some  of  the  things  essential  for  the  success- 
ful teaching  of  hygiene.  First  and  foremost,  and  always  to  be 
kept  in  mind  by  the  teacher,  is  the  fact  that  the  purpose  of 
teaching  hygiene  is  to  help  the  child  to  form  proper  habits 
of  living.  The  only  and  sole  purpose  of  the  subject  is  to 
teach  the  child  how  to  look  after  his  health  and  that  of  the 
community.  Any  teaching  of  hygiene  that  does  not  have 
this  purpose  must  necessarily  be  a  failure;  and  any  teaching 
that  does  not  procure  this  result  is  a  failure.  Habit  forma- 
tion, then,  is  the  keynote.  The  mere  giving  of  information 
is  valuable  only  so  far  as  it  helps  in  the  forming  of  habits; 
but  simply  to  give  the  child  information  about  hygiene 
which  he  does  not  apply  falls  wide  of  the  mark.  The  child 
should  be  taught  how  to  do,  rather  than  why. 

This  is  especially  true  of  the  lower  grades,  as  very  little 
work  in  the  formal  teaching  of  hygiene  by  set  lessons  can 
be  done.  But  much  can  be  done  to  help  the  children  to 
form  correct  habits.  The  actual  results  obtained  depend 
partly  upon  the  home  influences.  If  the  parents  cooperate 
with  the  teacher,  much  good  can  be  done;  if  the  parents  are 
indifferent,  less  can  be  accomplished,  but  still  something 
can  be  done. 

Home  habits.  The  following  are  the  more  essential  habits 
of  hygiene  that  the  teacher  should  try  to  have  the  children 
acquire:  (1)  washing  hands  before  eating;  (2)  thorough 
mastication  of  food;  (3)  abstaining  from  tea  and  coffee; 
(4)  cleaning  teeth  daily;  (5)  retiring  early;  (6)  ventilation 
of  sleeping-room;  (7)  playing  out  of  doors  regularly;  (8)  care 
of  the  eyes  in  reading. 

Simply  to  give  a  lesson  on  each  of  these  habits  is  not 
enough;  it  is  but  the  initial  step.  The  child's  habits  must 
be  followed  from  week  to  week.  Frequently  the  teacher 
should  have  the  children  report  on  the  extent  to  which 
they  are  doing  the  things  suggested,  and  in  many  ways  the 


146  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

teacher  should  seek  to  call  the  matter  to  their  attention. 
The  secret  of  success  in  forming  habits  is  constant  repeti- 
tion. 

School  habits.  There  are  some  habits  which  the  teacher 
can  directly  supervise  in  the  schoolroom,  such  as  the  fol- 
lowing: (1)  correct  posture;  (2)  use  of  eyes;  (3)  cleanliness 
of  hands,  face,  and  clothing;  (4)  use  of  individual  towels. 
These  come  under  the  constant  supervision  of  the  teacher, 
and  these  matters  should  often  be  brought  to  the  attention 
of  the  children  till  the  correct  habits  are  formed. 

Habits  to  discourage.  There  are  often  some  bad  habits 
which  children  acquire  that  the  teacher  should  discourage 
and  try  to  break  up;  such  as:  (1)  putting  things  in  the  ear, 
and  using  objects  like  hairpins  to  clean  the  ear;  (2)  expecto- 
rating on  the  floor;  (3)  coughing  in  other  people's  faces; 
(4)  reading  in  dim  light;  (5)  putting  objects  in  the  mouth. 
In  order  to  break  up  a  habit,  the  teacher  must  frequently 
call  the  attention  of  the  children  to  it  and  get  them  to 
thinking  about  it,  instead  of  doing  it  automatically. 

The  teacher  must  realize  at  the  start  the  fundamental 
importance  of  the  subject,  and  must  let  nothing  swerve  her 
from  the  main  purpose.  It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  form  health 
habits  and  requires  constant  and  continued  effort  on  the 
part  of  both  the  teacher  and  child  till  the  habit  is  formed. 
Mere  knowledge  of  a  fact  does  not  mean  that  the  child  will 
apply  it.  Further  suggestions  by  the  teacher  are  needed  tc 
help  the  child  act. 

(2)  Teacher's  habits.   The  teacher  herself  must  have  the 
proper  habits  of  living,  both  for  her  own  sake  that  she  may 
make  the  most  of  life,  and  for  the  sake  of  the  children  that 
her  example  may  be  a  model  for  the  children  to  follow. 

(3)  Hygiene,  not  anatomy  and  physiology.    The  thing  to 
emphasize  is  hygiene,  and  not  anatomy  and  physiology. 
The  human  body  is  too  complicated  a  mechanism  for  the 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HYGIENE  147 

pupil  to  understand,  in  the  first  place;  and  furthermore, 
knowledge  of  anatomy  and  physiology  has  practically  no 
influence  on  the  formation  of  health  habits.  The  time  to 
form  these  habits  is  when  the  child  is  very  young,  in  the 
primary  grade,  and  when  he  cannot  understand  even  the 
reasons  for  them;  but  the  thing  to  do  is  to  get  the  habit 
formed.  In  carrying  on  actions  by  habits  the  child  does  not 
have  time  to  think;  if  he  did,  the  action  would  cease  to  be  a 
habit.  Anatomy  has  no  place  whatever  in  the  elementary 
schools,  and  physiology  only  a  very  minor  place,  such  that 
the  child  may  understand  in  a  very  general  way  the  purpose 
of  the  heart,  stomach,  and  other  organs  of  the  body.  How 
absurd  to-day  seem  the  old  methods  of  attempting  to  teach 
the  care  of  the  body  by  having  the  children  learn  the  names 
of  the  bones,  and  having  them  trace  on  a  chart  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood. 

(4}  Emphasis  on  positive  side.  The  positive  side  of  good 
health  should  be  emphasized,  rather  than  the  negative  side 
of  disease.  The  child  should  have  held  up  before  him  the 
ideals  of  good  health  and  the  value  of  health  in  everything 
that  he  wishes  to  do.  He  should  be  led  into  good  habits  by 
the  desire  to  attain  good  results,  not  by  the  fear  of  ill  results. 
This  statement  is  based  on  a  well-known  truth  in  psychol- 
ogy, that  a  stronger  appeal  can  be  made  to  a  child  through 
desire  than  through  fear.  Too  much  emphasis  on  the  dis- 
ease side  and  the  ill  effects  of  improper  habits  of  living  may 
produce  a  morbid  feeling  that  is  distinctly  injurious. 

(5)  Both  personal  and  public  hygiene  to  be  taught.  But  the 
entire  emphasis  should  not  be  laid  on  personal  hygiene.  In 
the  earlier  years  special  attention  may  be  given  to  forming 
correct  personal  habits.  In  the  later  years  special  consider- 
ation should  be  given  to  the  health  of  the  community. 
Attention  should  be  called  to  those  matters  in  which  all 
are  equally  concerned  and  for  which  all  must  cooperate, 


148  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

such  as  the  public  water  supply,  the  milk  supply,  the  food 
supply,  and  the  control  of  contagious  diseases.  The  child 
is  to  work  not  merely  for  himself,  but  for  others  as  well. 
And,  of  course,  this  emphasis  on  public  hygiene  eventually 
gets  back  to  a  renewed  emphasis  on  personal  hygiene;  but  it 
is  from  a  new  standpoint,  that  of  the  relation  of  these  habits 
to  the  welfare  of  other  people;  so  that  the  child  has  a  double 
incentive  for  correct  living,  for  himself  and  for  others. 

(6)  Constant  supervision.  Hygiene  should  be  taught,  not  as 
an  isolated  subject  that  comes  at  a  certain  period  of  the  day 
and  then  is  forgotten,  but  as  a  constant  part  of  all  the  daily 
school  life  of  the  child.  At  any  and  every  part  of  the  day 
that  any  point  of  hygiene  is  involved,  then  should  the 
teacher  see  that  the  proper  thing  is  done.  The  habits  of  the 
child  should  be  under  constant  supervision  by  the  teacher 
at  all  times. 

Motivation.  One  of  the  first  essentials  in  teaching  is  to 
arouse  the  children's  interest.  How  may  this  be  done  in 
hygiene?  At  the  outset  we  meet  a  discouraging  fact,  but 
one  which  we  must  face,  namely,  that  children  have  little 
or  no  interest  in  health  as  an  aim  in  itself.  This  being  the 
case,  we  must  find  some  interests  which  can  be  used  indi- 
rectly to  promote  health  habits.  All  possible  interests,  both 
direct  and  indirect,  must  be  found  in  the  present  activities 
of  the  child.  The  child  is  not  interested  in  the  dim  and  dis- 
tant future.  To  seek  to  interest  a  child  in  what  may  happen 
in  his  life  ten  or  even  five  years  ahead  means  nothing  to  him. 
It  makes  no  appeal  to  him.  Our  appeal  must  be  made  to 
the  present. 

There  are  a  number  of  ways  in  which  the  interests  of  the 
child  may  be  appealed  to  and  used  indirectly  in  teaching 
hygiene.  Among  these  are  the  following:  play  instincts, 
desire  for  teacher's  approval,  competition,  imitation,  drama- 
tization, and  grading  pupils  on  habits  rather  than  knowledge, 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HYGIENE  149 

CO  Play  and  exercise.  It  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  get  the 
child  to  acquire  habits  of  exercise  through  play.  This  in- 
stinct is  very  strong  and  forms  a  large  part  of  the  child's 
life.  It  simply  needs  to  be  encouraged  and  guided  into  those 
kinds  of  plays  that  require  exercise  and  take  the  child  out 
of  doors.  No  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  suggest  any 
specific  games,  as  there  are  a  number  of  books  that  go  into 
this  matter  quite  fully. 

(2}  Teacher' 's  approval.  If  there  exists  the  right  feeling  of 
friendliness  and  cooperation  between  the  teacher  and  child, 
he  will  be  glad  to  do  things  to  please  the  teacher.  And  if  he 
has  confidence  in  her,  he  may  be  led  to  do  certain  things 
which  the  teacher  tells  him  are  best  for  him  to  do,  even  if  he 
does  not  understand  the  reasons  for  doing  them.  The  teacher 
may  use  this  spirit  to  help  the  child  in  forming  desirable 
habits. 

(3)  Competition.  Competition  is  always  more  or  less  of 
an  element  all  through  the  child's  life.  While  this  may  be 
carried  to  an  extreme,  it  has  its  place  and  may  be  used  by 
the  teacher  in  teaching  hygiene.  After  the  teacher  has  made 
clear  to  the  children  what  the  desirable  habits  of  hygiene 
are,  she  may  stimulate  a  little  emulation  in  the  children,  as 
is  often  profitably  done  in  other  subjects.  She  might  have 
a  roll  of  honor  list  on  the  board,  and  those  who  have  done 
certain  things  for  a  week  would  have  their  names  placed 
there.  Or  all  the  names  might  be  placed  on  the  board  and 
stars  put  after  each  name,  whenever  certain  things  at  home 
or  school  had  been  done,  such  as  cleaning  the  teeth  or  going 
without  coffee.  The  children's  hands  may  be  examined  each 
morning  to  see  which  have  the  cleanest  hands.  Competition 
may  be  started  between  the  different  rows  to  see  which  row 
can  keep  their  teeth  the  cleanest.  Similarly,  other  desirable 
habits  may  be  taken,  and  other  similar  devices  will  suggest 
themselves. 


150  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

CO  Imitation.  Imitation  is  one  of  the  commonest  methods 
by  which  the  child  acquires  habits.  This  is  usually  uncon- 
scious on  the  part  of  both  the  child  and  the  one  who  is  being 
imitated.  Here  is  one  of  the  strongest  reasons,  from  the 
school  standpoint,  why  the  teacher  herself  should  have 
correct  habits  of  living.  The  children  will  unconsciously 
imitate  her,  and,  if  her  habits  do  not  correspond  with  the 
teaching,  little  good  can  be  done.  But  if  they  do  harmonize, 
this  will  make  another  link  in  the  chain  which  is  helping 
the  children  form  correct  habits.  The  teacher  may  find  some 
person  whom  the  child  particularly  admires,  and  he  may 
thus  be  stimulated  to  imitate  desirable  habits  that  this  per- 
son may  possess. 

(5)  Dramatization.  Dramatization  is  a  very  powerful 
means  of  interesting  children  and  teaching  various  lessons, 
as  this  involves  the  play  instinct.  In  case  of  those  activities 
which  occur  at  home,  the  children  may  play  the  various  parts 
as  they  should  be  done.  To  show  how  to  use  the  eyes  in  read- 
ing, a  table  may  be  arranged  to  represent  a  home  circle  and 
various  children  may  take  the  part  of  father,  mother,  and 
children.  The  parents  may  then  show  the  children  how  they 
should  sit  with  reference  to  the  light.  The  part  may  be 
played  again  by  other  children. 

To  teach  some  of  the  rules  of  eating,  a  table  may  be  sup- 
posed to  be  set  with  various  foods,  which  may  be  indicated 
by  pieces  of  paper  with  names  of  food  written  on  them. 
Two  children  may  represent  the  parents  and  may  take  the 
responsibility  to  see  that  others  who  act  as  their  children 
take  the  right  kinds  of  food.  Mistakes  should  be  corrected. 
In  a  similar  way  other  habits  may  be  acted  out,  such 
as  opening  a  window  before  going  to  bed.  The  child  may 
take  a  toothbrush  and  tumbler  and  go  through  the  motions 
of  cleaning  his  teeth.  The  girls  may  show  how  to  care  for 
food,  and  how  to  keep  the  house  clean.  Certain  children 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HYGIENE  151 

who  take  the  part  of  parents  may  give  lessons  in  their  own 
language  to  other  pupils  playing  the  part  of  their  children. 
They  may  be  allowed  to  write  a  drama  of  their  own  and 
present  it. 

Treatment  for  emergencies  may  be  acted  out  by  suppos- 
ing that  some  child  in  the  room  has  met  with  an  accident, 
and  having  the  other  children  treat  him. 

Fifteen  playlets  for  children  on  health  subjects  have 
been  prepared  by  the  National  Association  for  the  Study 
of  Tuberculosis,  whose  address  is  given  on  page  152. 

(6)  Credit  for  habits.  The  child  should  be  judged  and 
graded,  if  grading  must  be  done,  not  by  what  he  knows  about 
the  subject,  but  by  what  he  does.  The  child's  habits  at  school 
should  be  watched,  and  the  extent  to  which  he  is  carrying 
out  proper  habits  at  home  should  be  learned  by  observation 
and  by  questioning,  and  the  child  graded  accordingly.  This 
will  be  one  stimulus  to  help  him  acquire  proper  habits.  This 
is  an  extension  in  one  particular  field  of  a  principle  which  is 
receiving  recognition  in  many  schools,  namely,  giving  school 
credit  for  home  work.  And  so  here  we  may  give  credit  for 
home  habits.  Perhaps,  to  begin  with,  the  grades  might  be 
based  half  on  the  child's  knowledge,  in  case  a  textbook  is 
used,  and  half  on  his  application  of  this  knowledge. 

On  page  152  is  given  a  health  record  that  the  author  has 
used  successfully  in  the  intermediate  grades.  The  time  for 
retiring  will  vary  according  to  the  grade. 

Each  child  fills  out  his  blank  with  the  assistance  of  the 
parents,  who  sign  the  record  at  the  end  of  each  week. 
These  blanks  are  then  brought  to  school. 

In  order  to  arouse  interest  and  stimulate  competition  a 
Health  League  was  formed  by  the  different  rooms  using 
this  record.  The  average  grade  of  all  the  children  in  each 
room  was  taken  weekly.  An  appropriate  chart  was  posted 
in  a  conspicuous  place  and  on  this  were  written  the  names 


152 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

RECORD  OF  HEALTH  HABITS 


Daily 

Mon- 

Tues- 

Wednei- 

Thun- 

Fri- 

Satur- 

Sun- 

credit 

day 

day 

day 

day 

day 

day 

day 

Wash  hands  before  each  meal  . 

16 

Do  not  use  tea  or  coffee  

16 

Clean  teeth  daily  
Exercise  one  hour  outdoors  .  .  . 

16 
16 

Sleep  with  window  open  
Retire  before  9:00  
jjatne  once  a  WCCK 

16 
16 
4 

Total  

100 

I  believe  this  report  to  be  a  truthful  statement  of  my  child's  habits  for  the  week.  (To 
be  signed  by  parent.) 

of  the  rooms  and  their  averages,  the  highest  first.  A  hygiene 
banner  was  provided  and  the  class  having  the  highest  aver- 
age kept  the  banner  hi  its  room  for  a  week.  New  averages 
were  made  up  at  the  beginning  of  each  week  and  the  banner 
awarded  accordingly. 

The  reports  of  the  parents  and  teachers  indicated  that 
the  plan  was  eminently  successful. 

An  organization  known  as  the  "Modern  Health  Cru- 
saders "  has  recently  been  formed,  as  a  means  of  inducing 
children  to  form  hygienic  habits  of  living.  There  has  been 
published  a  list  of  health  chores,  somewhat  similar  to  those 
given  in  the  above  health  record.  Children  who  perform 
eighty  per  cent  of  these  chores  for  certain  periods  of  time 
receive  various  titles  according  to  the  length  of  the  period 
that  the  chores  are  done.  At  the  beginning  of  1918  this  or- 
ganization had  a  membership  of  several  hundred  thousand. 

Full  particulars  may  be  obtained  by  writing  "The  Na- 
tional Association  for  the  Study  and  Prevention  of  Tuber- 
culosis," 105  East  22d  Street,  New  York  City. 

Science  method.  Another  way  to  arouse  interest  is  to  use 
the  science  approach  and  method  in  teaching  the  lessons  on 
hygiene.  As  far  as  possible  provide  concrete  material  which 
the  child  can  study,  and  with  which  experiments  may  be 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HYGIENE  153 

performed.  In  studying  the  hygiene  of  breathing  and  ven- 
tilation, perform  some  simple  experiments  showing  the  com- 
position and  pressure  of  air,  and  then  pass  to  the  hygienf 
of  air.  The  study  of  water  may  be  introduced  by  experi- 
ments showing  some  properties  of  water,  and  the  changes 
in  state  through  which  water  passes.  Foods  may  be  brought 
into  the  schoolroom  and  tested  for  their  constituents,  fats, 
proteins,  and  carbo-hydrates.  In  each  of  these  cases,  having 
aroused  the  interest  of  the  children  in  the  general  topic  by 
means  of  concrete  experiments,  the  hygienic  applications 
of  the  topic  may  then  be  presented  to  the  children.  In 
chapter  XV  more  definite  suggestions  are  given  along  this 
line. 

Work  in  primary  grades.  As  we  have  already  seen,  the 
chief  thing  in  the  primary  grades  is  to  encourage  the  forma- 
tion of  health  habits.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  encourage 
these  is  a  frequent  inspection  of  each  pupil.  This  may  be 
given  several  times  a  week,  or  perhaps  every  day.  The 
children  may  be  taken  in  rows  and  examined  a  row  at  a 
time  for  the  following  features:  (1)  cleanliness  of  hands  and 
nails;  (2)  cleanliness  of  face  and  ears;  (3)  cleanliness  of 
teeth;  (4)  cleanliness  of  clothing;  (5)  care  of  hair.  Those 
who  are  very  unclean  may  be  sent  to  the  washroom  to  get 
cleaned  up.  As  a  stimulus  for  keeping  clean,  perhaps  those 
who  are  generally  unclean  may  be  put  in  a  division  by 
themselves  and  called  the  "unclean"  or  "careless"  squad, 
till  they  deserve  promotion  by  being  more  careful.  The 
exact  things  to  be  done  must  depend  on  the  homes  from 
which  the  children  come.  The  teacher  must  use  tact,  as  the 
condition  of  the  child  usually  reflects  the  ideals  of  the 
home. 

Hygiene  charts.  One  very  effective  way  of  arousing  the 
child's  interest  and  leading  his  attention  to  certain  desirable 
habits  is  the  construction  of  hygiene  charts  by  the  children. 


154  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Following  are  suggested  some  possible  topics  for  each  of 
which  a  chart  may  be  worked  out :  — 

How  to  Keep  Clean. 

A  Good  Breakfast,  or  Dinner,  or  Supper. 

Good  Drinks  for  Children. 

How  to  Get  Fresh  Air. 

How  to  Get  Exercise. 

How  to  Clean  the  Teeth. 

Where  my  Mittens  Came  From. 

In  some  schools  toothbrush  drills  are  given,  in  which  the 
children  are  shown  how  to  brush  their  teeth. 

Work  in  intermediate  grades.  In  the  lower  intermediate 
grades  the  work  may  proceed  along  lines  similar  to  those 
followed  in  the  primary  grades,  but  the  work  should  be 
extended  to  meet  the  growing  capacity  of  the  child,  and 
oral  lessons  on  hygiene  given  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
grades.  Some  of  the  simple  experiments  given  in  chapter 
XV  may  be  performed  in  the  intermediate  grades.  In  the 
sixth  grade  a  simple  textbook  on  personal  hygiene  may  be 
used. 

Textbooks.  Great  care  should  be  used  in  selecting  a  text- 
book. Not  many  years  ago  there  were  no  satisfactory  texts 
really  suited  to  grade  use,  but  in  recent  years  a  number  of 
really  good  books  have  appeared.  A  satisfactory  text  for 
the  sixth  grade  should  be  written  almost  entirely  from  the 
standpoint  of  hygiene.  It  should  contain  very  little  if  any 
reference  to  anatomy  or  physiology.  It  should  be  organized 
from  the  child's  standpoint,  and  written  in  such  simple 
language  that  the  child  can  understand  it.  It  should  con- 
tain a  large  number  of  appropriate  illustrations. 

It  seems  desirable  to  use  two  textbooks  throughout  the 
grades,  —  one  in  the  sixth  grade  emphasizing  personal 
hygiene,  and  another  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade  empha- 
sizing public  hygiene. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HYGIENE  155 

For  books  on  personal  hygiene,  suitable  for  the  sixth 
grade,  the  following  are  recommended :  — 

Hutchinson,  The  Child's  Day.  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston. 
O'Shea  and  Kellogg,  Health  Habits.  The  Macmillan  Company, 
New  York  City. 

Jewett,  Good  Health.  Ginn  &  Company,  Boston. 

For  texts  on  public  hygiene  suitable  for  the  grammar 
grades  the  following  are  recommended :  — 

Hutchinson,  Community  Hygiene.  Houghton  Mifflin  Company, 
Boston. 

Coleman,  The  People's  Health.  The  Macmillan  Company, 
New  York  City. 

O'Shea  and  Kellogg,  Health  and  Cleanliness.  The  Macmillan 
Company,  New  York  City. 

Work  in  grammar  grades.  In  the  grammar  grades  the 
emphasis  should  be  placed  on  public  hygiene,  with  special 
reference  to  the  local  conditions.  Some  good  text  should  be 
used,  and  the  principles  and  suggestions  there  found  should 
be  applied  to  the  immediate  community.  A  study  should 
be  made  of  the  health  conditions  in  the  town  to  see  what 
can  be  done  to  better  them,  and  what  the  children  can  do 
to  help  make  and  keep  the  town  clean  and  healthful. 

A  bulletin  board  may  be  provided  on  which  may  be  posted 
clippings  on  various  topics  which  have  been  brought  in  by 
the  children. 

Most  of  the  experiments  suggested  in  chapter  XV  may 
be  performed  in  these  grades. 

Special  attention  may  be  given  to  keeping  the  schoolroom 
and  grounds  in  the  best  possible  condition.  Committees 
may  be  appointed  to  supervise  certain  things,  such  as  a 
ventilation  committee  to  watch  the  ventilation  and  tem- 
perature of  the  room,  a  lighting  committee  to  watch  the 
shades,  a  playground  committee  to  care  for  the  playground. 


156  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

This  might  be  assigned  as  a  part  of  the  work  in  hygiene,  and 
the  pupils  graded  accordingly.  Some  of  the  older  pupils 
might  be  appointed  as  building  inspectors  to  watch  the 
thermometers  in  the  primary  rooms,  in  cases  where  this  is 
not  already  being  done  by  the  janitor  or  by  somebody 
else. 

Outline  of  hygiene.  A  detailed  outline  of  hygiene,  ar- 
ranged by  grades  and  seasons,  is  given  in  the  general  outline 
of  science  in  chapter  XIX.  Most  of  this  is  put  in  the  winter 
term,  because  it  is  desired  to  use  the  autumn  and  spring  for 
out-of-door  studies  of  nature. 

Temperance  physiology.  During  the  past  twenty-five 
years  considerable  attention  has  been  given  in  textbooks 
to  so-called  "temperance  physiology,"  which  term  has  been 
used  to  mean  a  study  of  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  on 
the  human  system.  In  some  cases  the  teaching  of  this  has 
been  made  compulsory  by  State  laws.  It  seems  to  be  the 
nearly  universal  opinion  of  educators  that  this  teaching  has 
not  been  based  on  sound  pedagogy.  Some  of  the  mistakes 
that  have  been  made  in  the  past,  and  hence  to  be  avoided 
in  the  future,  are,  first,  too  much  emphasis  on  the  extremes, 
such  as  the  case  of  the  drunkard,  and  too  much  emphasis 
on  the  effect  on  the  various  organs  of  the  body,  by  means  of 
charts  showing  pictures  of  the  drunkard's  stomach,  liver, 
etc.  Too  often  the  teaching  has  been  done  in  such  a  way  as 
to  leave  the  impression  that  these  extreme  results  are  the 
common  thing,  and  that  they  always  follow  from  the  use 
of  alcohol. 

In  order  to  make  the  teaching  of  the  effects  of  alcohol 
effective,  appeals  must  be  made  to  the  children's  experiences 
and  to  their  present  life.  To  seek  for  a  motive  in  what  might 
happen  in  ten  or  fifteen  years  is  worthless.  The  child  is 
interested  only  in  the  present  or  immediate  future.  The 
remote  possibility  that  the  child  might  become  a  drunkard, 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HYGIENE  157 

if  he  started  to  drink  alcoholic  liquors,  makes  no  appeal  to 
him. 

The  whole  question  of  the  physiological  effect  of  alcohol 
is  very  complicated,  but  the  child  can  be  taught  that  even 
in  small  quantities  it  is  injurious  to  the  growing  tissues  of 
boys  and  girls. 

The  effect  of  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  on  the  child's 
life  may  be  shown  in  two  ways.  One  way  applies  to  all  chil- 
dren. Alcohol,  through  causing  paupers,  criminals,  and 
insane  people,  creates  an  increase  in  the  taxes  that  the 
child's  father  must  pay,  and  hence  that  leaves  less  money 
to  be  used  for  the  needs  of  the  child.  In  case  a  child's  father 
uses  alcohol,  the  effect  on  the  family  through  the  squander- 
ing of  money,  and  perhaps  the  physical  abuse  of  the  chil- 
dren, may  be  noted  as  another  way  in  which  alcohol  may 
affect  the  child's  life.  Of  course,  this  can  be  discussed  only 
in  a  general  way  before  a  schoolroom  of  children. 

The  disagreeable  and  dangerous  acts  of  men  under  the 
influence  of  liquor  may  be  cited  as  a  thing  that  makes  the 
town  a  less  desirable  place  for  the  child  to  live  in. 

When  the  boy  becomes  of  an  age  when  he  is  looking  for  a 
position,  then  it  may  be  pointed  out  to  him  that  there  are 
certain  positions  where  no  one  will  be  employed  who  uses 
alcohol,  and  that  in  most  other  positions  a  person  who  does 
not  drink  stands  a  better  chance  than  one  who  does.  This 
makes  a  direct  appeal  to  the  boy. 

Teaching  hygiene  by  jingles  and  stories.  Lessons  in 
hygiene  may  be  brought  home  to  the  child  forcibly  by  means 
of  jingles.  The  following  example  is  taken  from  Dr.  Allen's 
Alice  in  Wonderland  :  — 

"  Mary  had  a  little  cold, 

It  started  in  her  head: 
And  everywhere  that  Mary  went 
That  cold  was  sure  to  spread. 


158  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

"She  took  it  into  school  one  day,  — 

There  was  n't  any  rule : 
It  made  the  children  cough  and  sneeze, 
To  have  that  cold  in  school. 

'.  "The  teacher  tried  to  drive  it  out, 

She  tried  hard,  but  —  ker-choo; 
It  did  n't  do  a  bit  of  good, 
'Cause  teacher  caught  it  too." 

Health  lessons  may  also  be  taught  by  means  of  stories. 
The  following  pamphlets  relating  to  the  care  of  the  teeth 
are  adapted  for  use  with  the  primary  and  intermediate 
grades,  and  may  be  obtained  free  from  the  Colgate  Company, 
New  York  City:  The  Jungle  School;  Magic  Pearls;  Dental 
Lectures;  Instructions  for  the  Home  Care  of  the  Teeth.  A 
story,  entitled  The  Owchies  and  the  Denties,  may  be  obtained 
free  from  the  Webster  Chemical  Company,  St.  Paul,  Min- 
nesota. 


CHAPTER  XV 

TEACHING  HYGIENE  THROUGH  EXPERIMENTS 

THE  science  approach  will  make  the  subject  of  hygiene 
more  interesting  and  so  lead  to  more  effective  results.  If 
concrete  materials  are  used  in  connection  with  lessons  in 
hygiene,  these  may  be  employed  as  an  introduction  to  the 
application  of  the  laws  of  hygiene  that  it  is  desired  the  child 
shall  make.  In  this  chapter  are  described  a  number  of  sim- 
ple experiments  that  may  be  taken  up  in  connection  with 
hygiene.  These  are  intended  to  be  merely  suggestive.  Many 
other  lessons  should  be  worked  out  in  connection  with  them, 
and  emphasis  placed  on  the  appropriate  applications.  They 
are  adapted  to  the  grammar  and  upper  intermediate  grades. 
These  experiments  are  arranged  under  the  topics  of  hygiene 
which  they  most  closely  illustrate. 

L  BREATHING  AND  VENTILATION 
A.  Breathing 

1.  Composition  of  the  air. 

Apparatus:  Candle,  cork,  plate,  tumbler,  lime  water. 

a.  Get  a  cork  stopper  a  little  larger  than  the  diameter  of  a  candle. 
Cut  off  a  piece  about  a  half-inch  thick  from  the  large  end.  In  the 
center  cut  a  hole  big  enough  to  receive  a  short  candle  about  an  inch 
long.   Float  this  in  a  plate  filled  with  water.   Light  the  candle,  and 
after  it  is  burning  well,  invert  the  glass  tumbler  over  it.  Allow  to 
stand  for  a  few  minutes.  Why  does  the  candle  go  out?  What  hap- 
pens to  the  water?  The  water  rises  to  take  the  place  of  the  oxygen 
used  by  the  candle.   The  gas  left  in  the  tumbler  is  nitrogen. 

b.  To  show  the  presence  of  carbon  dioxide,  pour  some  lime 
water  in  a  dish  and  allow  to  stand  for  several  hours.   The  white 
coating  that  forms  on  the  surface  shows  the  presence  of  carbon 
dioxide. 


160  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

c.  To  show  the  presence  of  water  in  the  air,  bring  into  the  school- 
room a  metal  cup  containing  ice  water.  The  water  that  condenses 
on  the  outside  of  the  cup  comes  from  the  air. 

2.  Effect  on  air  of  breathing. 

How  does  the  air  we  breathe  out  differ  from  the  air  we  breathe 
in? 

a.  Breathe  on  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  and  compare  the  tem- 
perature with  that  of  the  room. 

b.  Pour  some  lime  water  into  a  bottle  and  blow  through  it  by 
means  of  a  straw  or  tube.  Pour  some  lime  water  into  another  bottle 
and  force  air  through  it  with  a  bicycle  pump.     Which  gets  the 
milkier?  What  does  this  show? 

c.  Breathe  on  a  window  pane.  What  do  the  results  show? 

d.  What  three  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  air  we  breathe 
out? 

3.  Rate  of  breathing. 

While  the  teacher  times  them  by  a  watch,  have  each  child  count 
the  number  of  times  he  breathes  in  a  minute.  Repeat  several 
times  to  find  the  average.  Find  the  average  for  the  whole  class. 

Try  it  again  after  the  children  have  been  taking  some  vigorous 
exercise  like  running. 

4.  Amount  of  air  breathed. 

Apparatus:  A  two-quart  canning-jar,  large  pan,  glass  tube  bent 
at  one  end,  or  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  with  a  bent  piece  of  glass 
tubing  inserted  at  one  end. 

a.  Fill  the  jar  with  water,  cover  with  a  piece  of  cardboard  and 
invert  it  in  the  pan  of  water  without  allowing  the  water  to  escape 
from  the  jar.  Insert  the  bent  end  of  the  tube  under  the  mouth  of 
the  jar.   Have  some  child  breathe  through  the  tube  till  the  water 
is  all  forced  out  of  the  jar.  See  how  many  breaths  are  required  to 
fill  the  jar  with  air.    Let  several  children  try  it.    After  each  child 
has  used  the  tube,  cleanse  the  end  in  some  disinfectant,  such  as 
hydrogen  peroxide,  and  wash  in  water.   From  this  experiment  and 
from  a  previous  one  showing  how  many  times  one  breathes  in  a 
minute,  compute  the  amount  of  air  that  all  of  the  children  in  the 
room  breathe  in  during  a  minute. 

b.  For  another  experiment  the  children  may  test  their  lung 
capacity.  Fill  and  invert  the  jar  as  above.  After  a  child  has  taken 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  HYGIENE  161 

a  deep  breath,  let  him  force  out  all  the  water  he  can  in  one  breath. 
Record  the  amount  on  the  board.   Have  a  number  of  children  try 

this. 

B.  Ventilation 

1.  Ventilation  of  the  schoolroom, 

Apparatus:  Two  thermometers,  a  piece  of  soft  muslin,  touch 
paper  or  joss  sticks,  tufts  of  down. 

a.  Amount  of  air  entering.  Throw  a  tuft  of  down  in  front  of  the 
air  inlet  and  estimate  how  far  it  travels  in  a  second.  Do  this  several 
times  and  take  the  average  for  the  velocity  with  which  the  air  en- 
ters. Measure  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  air  inlet.  Find  the 
area  and  then  multiply  by  the  velocity  to  find  the  amount  of  air 
entering  in  a  second.  Find  how  much  enters  in  a  minute.  Compare 
this  with  the  amount  of  air  that  the  children  breathe  each  minute 
as  found  in  a  previous  experiment. 

6.  Direction  of  air  currents.  Light  a  joss  stick  or  piece  of  cloth 
and  hold  in  different  parts  of  the  room  and  thus  determine  the 
direction  of  the  air  currents  by  means  of  the  smoke.  Make  a  dia- 
gram of  the  room  on  the  board  and  indicate  the  air  currents  by 
means  of  arrows. 

c.  Temperature.  Place  a  thermometer  in  different  parts  of  the 
room  and  find  the  temperature. 

d.  Humidity.  Fasten  a  piece  of  soft  muslin  cloth  around  the 
bulb  of  one  thermometer,  and  allow  the  other  end  of  the  cloth  to 
hang  in  a  bottle  filled  with  water.    Hang  another  thermometer  be- 
side this.   Fan  the  bulbs  vigorously  for  a  short  time,  then  look  at 
the  reading  of  the  wet  bulb.    Continue  to  fan  till  the  mercury  in 
the  wet  bulb  ceases  to  go  any  lower.    Then  take  the  readings  of 
both  thermometers.    A  slight  difference  means  a  moist  air;  a  large 
difference  means  a  dry  air.    The  percentage  of  humidity  may  be 
found  approximately  from  the  following  table:  — 

Difference  in  readings  Temperature  (dry  bulb) 

40         50  60  70  80 

4  68%  74%  78%  81%  83% 

8  37    49  58  64  68 

12  8    26  39  48  54 

16  5  21  33  41 

20  5  19  29 


162  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

To  show  the  way  of  using  the  table,  suppose  the  difference  be- 
tween the  two  thermometers  is  16  and  the  reading  of  the  dry  bulb 
is  70,  the  figure  opposite  16  and  under  70,  in  this  case  33,  gives  the 
per  cent  of  humidity. 

2.  Conditions  needed  for  ventilation. 

Apparatus:  Candle,  lamp,  chimney  with  even  top,  two  matches, 
cardboard. 

Light  the  candle.  Place  the  chimney  over  it.  Why  does  the 
candle  go  out? 

Light  the  candle  again.  On  each  side  place  a  match.  On  the 
matches  place  the  chimney  and  cover  the  top  with  the  cardboard. 
Why  does  the  candle  go  out? 

Repeat  the  previous  experiment,  except  that  the  cardboard  is 
not  placed  over  the  chimney.  Why  does  the  candle  continue  to 
burn?  What  do  these  experiments  show? 

Application.  As  a  result  of  these  experiments  on  breathing  and 
ventilation,  the  children  should  be  led  to  see  the  need  of  ventila- 
tion and  the  method  by  which  it  can  be  secured  under  all  conditions. 
Special  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  ventilation  of  the  school- 
room and  of  the  sleeping-room  at  night  by  the  children. 

II.  HEATING  THE  HOME  AND  THE  SCHOOLROOM 
A.  Sources  of  heat 

Apparatus:  Stick  of  wood,  board  with  groove,  file,  nail,  penny, 
hammer,  stone,  sulphuric  acid,  unslaked  lime,  lime  water,  a  burn- 
ing-glass. 

1.  Friction.  Rub  a  stick  back  and  forth  in  a  groove  of  wood; 
feel  of  the  wood.  Rub  a  com  over  the  table;  feel  of  the  coin.  File  a 
nail  vigorously,  and  then  feel  of  the  nail. 

2.  Percussion.  Place  a  penny  or  a  piece  of  metal  on  a  stone  and 
strike  it  several  times  with  a  hammer;  feel  the  metal. 

3.  Chemical  action.  Pour  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid   into  a 
small  dish  of  water;  notice  the  change  in  temperature  by  feeling 
of  the  outside  of  the  dish.    Or  add  some  water  to  unslaked  lime 
and  note  the  results. 

4.  Electricity.   Turn  on  the  electric  light  and  hold  the  hand  over 
the  bulb.   What  do  you  notice? 

5.  Combustion.  Light  a  splint  of  wood  and  insert  it  in  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle.    When  it  goes  out,  light  it  and  insert  in  the 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  HYGIENE  163 

bottle  again.  Pour  some  lime  water  into  the  bottle,  cover  with  a 
piece  of  cardboard,  and  shake.  What  change  takes  place  in  the 
lime  water?  This  white  precipitate  shows  the  presence  of  carbon 
dioxide  formed  by  the  burning  of  wood. 

6.  The  Sun.  Hold  a  burning-glass  at  right  angles  to  the  sun's 
rays  and  focus  on  a  piece  of  paper. 

B.  Method  of  starting  fires 

Notice  the  parts  of  an  ordinary  match.  Light  it  and  note  the 
order  in  which  the  different  parts  burn.  Compare  a  safety  match 
with  an  ordinary  match  and  note  the  differences.  Try  to  light  each 
one  on  an  ordinary  board  surface.  What  difference  do  you  find? 
What  advantage  has  the  safety  match? 

C.  Effect  of  heat 

1.  On  gases. 

Apparatus:  Flask,  rubber  stopper  with  a  single  hole,  glass  tub- 
ing, alcohol  lamp,  tumbler,  chimney,  joss  stick  or  cloth,  candle. 

Push  the  tubing  through  the  stopper  and  insert  the  stopper  in 
the  flask.  Fill  the  tumbler  with  water  and  place  the  end  of  the 
tube  in  it,  and  heat  the  flask  gently  with  the  alcohol  lamp.  Notice 
what  happens  at  the  end  of  the  tube.  What  is  the  explanation? 
Remove  the  lamp,  but  allow  the  end  of  the  tube  to  remain  in  the 
water.  What  happens?  What  does  this  show? 

Light  a  candle.  On  each  side  place  a  match.  On  the  matches 
place  a  chimney.  Light  a  joss  stick  or  piece  of  cloth  and  hold  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  chimney  near  the  matches.  What  do  you 
notice  inside  of  the  chimney?  What  does  this  show? 

How  are  the  principles  shown  in  these  two  experiments  applied 
in  the  hot-air  furnace? 

2.  On  liquids. 

Apparatus:  Flask,  stopper,  and  tube  as  in  previous  experiment, 
test  tube,  sawdust. 

Fill  the  flask  with  water  and  insert  the  stopper  so  that  the  water 
stands  in  the  tube  about  an  inch  above  the  stopper.  Tie  a  colored 
string  around  the  tube  at  the  surface  of  the  water.  Heat  the  flask 
with  the  alcohol  lamp  and  watch  the  liquid  in  the  tube.  Remove  the 
lamp  and  allow  the  water  to  cool.  \Vhat  happens  to  the  water  in 
the  tube  in  each  case?  What  does  this  show?  Put  some  sawdust  in 
a  test  tube  filled  with  water,  and  heat.  Note  the  motion  of  the  saw- 
dust. 


164  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

How  are  the  principles  illustrated  by  these  two  experiments  ap- 
plied in  hot-water  heating? 

D.  Measuring  the  temperature 

1.  How  to  use  a  thermometer. 

Apparatus:  Ordinary  thermometer,  card  thermometer,  ict. 
warm  water. 

The  children  in  the  third  grade  may  each  make  a  cardboard 
thermometer.  Get  a  piece  of  cardboard  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
wide  and  a  little  longer  than  an  ordinary  thermometer.  Draw  a 
line  through  the  center  of  the  cardboard  and  copy  on  it  the  readings 
of  the  thermometer  scale,  ranging  from  20°  below  zero  to  100°  above. 
Punch  a  hole  through  the  cardboard  at  each  of  these  ends  of  the 
scale.  Pass  through  one  hole  a  white  string  and  through  the  other 
hole  a  red  or  blue  string.  Tie  them  together  at  the  back  of  the  card- 
board. Pull  them  tight  and  tie  them  in  front.  In  place  of  a  string  a 
narrow  ribbon  may  be  used. 

The  colored  string  represents  the  liquid  in  a  thermometer,  and 
the  knot  represents  the  top  of  the  liquid.  Set  this  knot  at  various 
positions  and  ask  the  children  to  read  them.  Ask  the  children  to 
set  their  thermometers  at  various  temperatures. 

After  the  children  can  read  these,  use  the  ordinary  thermometer 
and  have  them  read  it  at  various  temperatures.  Breathe  on  the 
bulb,  place  the  bulb  in  ice  water,  then  add  warm  water,  and  have 
a  reading  made  each  time. 

Have  the  children  make  readings  of  the  thermometer  for  a  week 
both  indoors  and  out  of  doors  at  different  times  of  the  day,  and 
keep  records  on  the  board. 

IH.  FOODS 
A.  To  test  foods  for  nutrients 

Apparatus :  Various  kinds  of  food,  iodine,  nitric  acid,  ammonia, 
alcohol  lamp. 

1.  To  test  for  starch. 

Heat  a  little  starch  in  water,  allow  it  to  cool,  and  then  add 
a  few  drops  of  a  diluted  solution  of  iodine  in  alcohol.  A  blue  color 
shows  the  presence  of  starch.  Test  in  a  similar  way  a  number  of 
common  foods. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  HYGIENE 


165 


2.  To  test  for  'proteins. 

Heat  the  white  of  an  egg  slowly.  This  hardening  is  a  test  for 
proteins. 

For  another  test  add  some  nitric  acid  to  a  piece  of  meat,  and  boil. 
Pour  out  the  acid,  rinse  the  meat  in  water,  and  then  add  am- 
monia. The  yellow  color  is  a  test  for  proteins.  Test  a  number  of 
foods  for  protein. 

3.  To  test  for  fats. 

Place  a  piece  of  butter  on  a  bit  of  paper  and  warm  gently. 
What  change  takes  place  in  the  paper?  This  is  a  test  for  fat. 

For  another  test  heat  the  substance  gently  in  a  test  tube  without 
burning  the  food.  Then  add  warm  water  and  see  if  any  fat  collects 
on  the  surface. 

Test  a  number  of  foods  for  fats. 

Put  records  in  the  form  of  the  following  tables:  — 


Kind  of  food 

Starch 

Protein 

Fat 

Put  the  names  of  the  foods  in  the  first  column,  and  put  a  check 
opposite  each  food  in  the  proper  column  to  correspond  with  the 
tests. 

B.  To  study  the  action  of  baking  powders 

Put  a  little  baking  powder  into  water  and  note  what  happens. 
Put  some  powder  into  vinegar  and  note  the  results. 

Dissolve  soda  and  cream  of  tartar  separately  in  cold  water.  Then 
pour  one  into  the  other.  Try  hot  water  and  note  any  difference. 

C.  To  study  the  action  of  yeast 

Make  a  paste  of  flour  and  water.  Mix  with  this  a  small  piece  of 
yeast  cake.  Allow  to  stand  a  while  in  a  warm  place  and  notice 
what  happens. 

.  Put  in  each  of  two  test  tubes  or  small  bottles  a  teaspoonful 
of  molasses  and  ten  teaspoonfuls  of  water.  Mix  a  small  piece  of 
yeast  cake  with  water  and  add  half  to  each  bottle.  Allow  to  stand 


166  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

for  a  day,  one  in  a  cool  place,  such  as  an  ice  chest,  and  the  other  in  a 
warm  place.  Notice  any  difference  in  the  two  at  the  end  of  that 
time. 

IV.  THE  EYE 

Materials:  Snellen's  vision  chart,  piece  of  white  cardboard 
about  six  inches  square,  reading-lens,  convex  and  concave  lenses, 
candle. 

1.  To  test  the  eye. 

The  teacher  should  secure  a  Snellen's  vision  chart,  and  follow- 
ing the  directions  there  given  should  test  the  eyes  of  each  child. 
Cases  of  defective  vision  should  be  reported  to  the  principal. 

2.  To  show  how  the  image  is  formed. 

Hold  the  reading-glass  and  the  white  cardboard  hi  line  with  the 
window  till  images  appear  distinct  on  the  cardboard.  How  does 
the  image  differ  from  the  object?  How  does  the  distance  affect  the 
relative  size  of  the  image? 

3.  To  illustrate  binocular  vision. 

a.  Hold  two  pencils  vertically  before  the  eye,  one  about  a  foot 
away  and  the  other  about  two  feet.  Look  at  the  nearer  pencil  with 
both  eyes.  How  does  the  other  pencil  appear?  Look  at  the  farther 
pencil  with  both  eyes.   How  does  the  nearer  pencil  appear? 

b.  Shut  one  eye.    Hold  a  pencil  in  each  hand  about  a  foot  from 
the  eye  and  try  to  bring  the  points  together.  Try  it  with  both  eyes 
open. 

4.  To  show  tlie  existence  of  the  blind  spot  in  the  eye. 

On  a  piece  of  paper  make  a  cross  and  circle  about  as  far  apart 
as  the  two  eyes. 


o 


Hold  the  circle  in  front  of  the  right  eye.  Close  the  left  eye.  Look 
steadily  at  the  cross  and  move  the  paper  back  and  forth  till  the 
circle  disappears. 


PART  V 
PHYSICAL  SCIENCE 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 

THE  practical  applications  of  physics  and  chemistry  play 
such  an  important  part  in  the  child's  life  that  some  study  of 
these  should  be  made  in  the  science  course.  The  method  of 
teaching  biological  science  is  largely  through  observation; 
the  method  of  teaching  physical  science  is  largely  through 
experimentation.  In  preparing  this  chapter  the  author  has 
considered  the  applications  of  physics  and  chemistry  in  the 
child's  life.  In  order  to  illustrate  the  uses  of  these  applica- 
tions and  the  principles  involved,  he  has  sought  to  suggest 
a  series  of  simple  experiments  that  can  be  performed  in  the 
schoolroom  with  such  apparatus  as  can  easily  be  secured 
by  the  teacher  and  children. 

When  the  science  work  in  the  grades  has  become  better 
organized  and  its  value  better  understood,  apparatus  will 
be  supplied  by  the  school  authorities,  as  is  now  done  for 
geography  and  other  subjects.  Very  likely  this  matter  will 
be  solved  through  the  extension  of  the  junior  high  school, 
which  permits  of  departmental  teaching  and  will  be  furnished 
apparatus  similar  to  that  now  supplied  high  schools.  At  the 
present  time,  however,  little  apparatus  is  furnished  for  the 
science  work  in  the  grades,  and  hence  the  need  of  suggesting 
experiments  that  may  be  performed  with  the  simplest  out- 
fit. 

The  work  outlined  in  this  chapter  is  adapted  to  the 
grammar  and  upper  intermediate  grades. 


170  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

I.  LIGHTING  OUR  HOMES 
A.  Parts  of  candle  flame 

Apparatus:  Candle,  piece  of  glass  or  cardboard. 

1.  Light  the  candle.  After  it  is  burning  well,  light  a  match,  blow 
out  the  candle,  and  then  hold  the  lighted  match  about  a  half-inch 
above  the  candle.  Why  does  it  light?  Try  several  times  to  see  how 
far  above  the  candle  you  can  hold  the  match  and  have  it  light. 

2.  How  many  parts  do  you  see  in  the  candle  flame?    What  is 
happening  to  the  paraffin  near  the  wick?  Blow  out  the  candle  flame. 
Look  quickly  at  the  wick  and  feel  of  it.   What  does  it  contain? 

3.  Press  a  piece  of  glass  or  cardboard  down  on  the  flame  and 
hold  for  a  second  or  two.  What  is  formed  on  the  glass?  How  is  it 
arranged? 

Hold  the  phosphorus  of  a  match  in  the  central  cone  of  the  candle. 
Does  it  burn  quickly? 

Hold  a  match  or  toothpick  right  across  the  middle  of  the  flame 
till  it  begins  to  burn.  Then  take  it  away  and  blow  out  the  flame 
on  the  wood  quickly.  Where  did  it  begin  to  burn  first? 

What  do  the  experiments  so  far  performed  show  about  the 
structure  of  the  candle  flame? 

B.  Conditions  needed  for  candle  to  burn 

Apparatus:  Lamp  chimney  with  level  top,  lime  water,  glass 
tumbler. 

1.  Light  the  candle.   Invert  a  glass  tumbler  over  it.   Why  does 
it  go  out?   Light  the  candle  again.    Invert  over  it  a  canning-jar. 
Does  the  candle  burn  any  longer?  Why? 

2.  Light  the  candle.   On  each  side  place  a  match  and  on  these 
put  the  lamp  chimney.   Does  the  flame  act  any  differently? 

3.  Place  a  piece  of  cardboard  on  the  top  of  the  chimney.   Why 
does  the  flame  go  out? 

4.  Light  the  candle  and  place  it  on  a  piece  of  blotting-paper. 
Put  the  chimney  over  the  candle  and  hold  it  down  firmly  on  the 
paper.   Why  does  the  flame  go  out  now? 

What  do  these  experiments  show  that  a  candle  needs  in  order 
to  burn? 

5.  In  order  to  show  what  is  given  off  when  a  candle  burns,  place 
a  candle  about  an  inch  long  in  a  glass  tumbler.  Light  it,  and  cover 
with  a  piece  of  cardboard.    After  the  flame  goes  out,  quickly  re- 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY  171 

move  the  candle  and  pour  in  some  lime  water.  Cover  the  tumbler 
and  shake.  The  white  substance  formed  shows  the  presence  of 
carbon  dioxide. 

C.  Gas  and  electric  meters 

Have  the  children  read  both  a  gas  meter  and  an  electric  meterv 
either  in  the  school  building  or  at  home.  Have  them  note  which 
way  the  hands  on  the  dials  turn.  Have  a  drawing  made  of  the  dials 
and  the  hands  showing  the  reading.  At  the  end  of  the  week  have 
another  reading  and  drawing  made.  From  this  have  them  com- 
pute how  much  the  cost  for  a  week  was  of  both  the  gas  and  elec- 
tricity. 

Have  them  notice  how  the  gas  and  electricity  can  be  turned  off 
from  the  meter. 

II.  WATER 

A.  Some  properties  of  water 
Materials:  Small  vial  and  stopper,  penny,  tumbler. 

1.  To  make  a  carpenter's  level. 

Fill  a  vial  nearly  full  of  water  and  cork  it.  Place  it  on  its  side. 
Add  enough  water  so  that  an  air  bubble  about  a  half-inch  long 
is  left.  Try  this  on  various  surfaces,  such  as  desks  and  tables,  and 
see  if  they  are  level.  Test  by  comparison  with  a  regular  carpen- 
ter's level.  What  property  of  water  does  this  experiment  show? 

2.  Gases  in  water. 

Draw  some  fresh  water  from  a  faucet  in  a  bottle  and  allow  to 
stand  for  several  hours  or  a  day.  What  collects  on  the  side?  Does 
this  have  any  relation  to  the  fact  that  fishes  can  live  in  water? 

3.  Effect  of  water  in  bending  light. 

Put  a  penny  in  the  bottom  of  a  tumbler.  Stand  in  such  a  position 
that  the  edge  of  the  penny  is  just  in  line  with  the  rim  of  the  tumbler. 
Pour  water  into  the  tumbler  and  note  the  change  in  the  apparent 
position  of  the  penny. 

B.  Changes  of  water  from  one  state  to  another 

Materials:  Tumblers,  thermometer,  flask,  alcohol  lamp,  tin 
cup,  bottle,  salt,  can  with  small  opening. 


172  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

1.  Evaporation. 

a.  Fill  a  tumbler  half  full  of  water.    Pour  the  same  amount  of 
water  into  a  plate.    Allow  both  to  stand  side  by  side  for  several 
days.   From  which  does  the  water  evaporate  more  quickly?  Why? 

b.  Fill  two  tumblers  half  full  of  water.  Place  one  in  the  warmest 
part  of  the  room.    Put  the  other  in  a  cool  place  out  of  doors  if  the 
weather  is  not  freezing.   Which  evaporates  faster?  Why? 

c.  Fill  two  tumblers  half  full  of  water.  Put  them  in  a  place  where 
the  wind  blows  across  them.    Cover  one  with  a  dish.    Allow  to 
stand.   Which  evaporates  faster?  W'hy? 

d.  Fasten  a  piece  of  cloth  around  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer. 
Note  the  reading.  Wet  the  cloth  and  fan  for  a  minute  or  two.  Read 
the  thermometer  again.  What  change  has  taken  place?  What  does 
this  show?  WThat  applications  of  this  principle  have  you  observed? 

e.  Making  water  boil  with  ice.  Fill  a  flask  about  one  fourth  full  of 
water  and  heat  till  it  boils.   Remove  the  flask  and  cork  tightly  at 
once.  Invert  the  flask  and  pour  over  it  water  containing  ice  or  snow. 
Why  does  the  water  begin  to  boil  again? 

2.  Condensation. 

Heat  some  water  till  it  boils.  Hold  a  cold  surface  above  the  flask. 
What  collects  on  it?  WTiy? 

Fill  a  bright  tin  cup  about  half  full  of  water.  Add  snow  or  ice 
mixed  with  salt  to  the  water.  \Vatch  the  outside  of  the  dish.  What 
collects  there?  Why? 

.  C.  Freezing  and  melting 

1.  Temperature. 

Put  some  ice  in  a  tumbler  of  water.  Place  a  thermometer  in  this, 
stirring  the  water.  What  is  the  lowest  temperature  to  which  it  falls? 

2.  Expansion  in  freezing. 

Fill  a  glass  bottle  with  water  and  insert  a  cork  tightly.  Secure 
a  varnish  can,  or  a  molasses  or  syrup  can  with  a  small  opening.  Fill 
it  completely  with  water.  Put  the  bottle  and  can  out  of  doors  where 
the  water  will  freeze.  Examine  the  next  day  and  see  what  has 
happened.  Examine  the  crystals  of  ice. 

Put  a  rectangular  piece  of  ice  in  water.  Why  does  it  float?  Meas- 
ure the  part  that  is  above  water  and  the  part  that  is  below.  What 
fraction  of  the  whole  is  above  water? 

Wrhat  two  changes  take  place  in  freezing  as  shown  by  these  ex- 
periments? 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY  173 

3.  Making  ice  cream. 

Put  a  mixture  of  salt  and  crushed  ice  in  a  tumbler,  put  in  a  ther- 
mometer and  record  the  temperature.  Try  different  proportions  of 
ice  and  salt  and  find  which  gives  the  lowest  temperature. 

Put  a  test  tube  containing  water  into  the  mixture  of  ice  and 
salt. 

Fill  a  tin  cup  with  snow  or  ice.  Place  the  cup  on  a  board  covered 
with  water.  Stir  some  salt  into  the  snow  or  ice.  What  happens 
to  the  water  on  the  board  and  the  bottom  of  the  cup?  Why? 

D.  Pumping  water 

When  water  is  pumped,  it  is  forced  up  through  the  pipe  by  the 
weight  of  the  air  pressing  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  This  pres- 
sure of  the  air  may  be  shown  by  a  number  of  simple  experiments. 

Materials:  Rubber  tubing,  or  glass  tube  bent  at  an  acute  angle, 
medicine  dropper,  test  tube,  glass  tubing  about  eight  inches  long, 
tumbler,  pint  milk  bottle,  hard-boiled  egg  with  shell  removed. 

1.  Secure  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  about  a  foot  and  a  half  long. 
Submerge  this  in  a  dish  of  water  till  the  tube  is  full  of  water. 
Pinch  one  end  of  the  tube  and  bring  it  out  over  the  edge  of  the  dish 
and  place  it  over  an  empty  dish  set  a  little  lower  than  the  first 
dish.    What  makes  the  water  flow?    Raise  the  second  dish  higher 
than  the  first  and  notice  what  happens.     A  piece  of  bent  glass 
tubing  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  rubber  tube.    This  is  called  a 
siphon. 

2.  Squeeze  the  bulb  on  a  medicine  dropper  and  put  the  end  in 
water.   Remove  the  pressure  from  the  bulb.   Why  does  the  water 
enter  the  dropper? 

3.  Fill  a  test  tube  with  water.    Place  your  thumb  over  the  end 
and  invert  it  in  a  dish  of  water  removing  the  thumb  after  the  end 
of  the  tube  is  under  water.   Why  does  the  water  stay  in  the  tube? 

4.  Put  a  piece  of  glass  tubing  in  water.  Place  the  finger  over  the 
upper  end  and  remove  from  the  water.   Why  does  the  water  stay 
in  the  tube?   Remove  the  finger.   Why  does  the  water  fall?  Why 
is  it  possible  to  drink  soda  through  a  straw? 

5.  Fill  a  tumbler  full  of  water.    Over  the  top  place  a  piece  of 
paper  and  press  it  down  firmly  on  the  rim.  Hold  the  paper  on  with 
one  hand  and  invert  the  tumbler  with  the  other.  Remove  the  hand 
from  the  paper.   What  keeps  the  paper  up? 

6.  Light  a  piece  of  paper  and  drop  it  into  a  pint  milk  bottle. 


174  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

After  the  flame  goes  out,  put  a  hard-boiled  egg  with  the  shell  re- 
moved, in  the  mouth  of  the  bottle.  What  forces  the  egg  into  the 
bottle? 

F.  Reading  the  water  meter 

Have  the  children  read  the  water  meter,  either  in  the  school 
building  or  at  home.  Have  a  drawing  made  showing  dial  and 
position  of  hands.  Have  it  read  again  at  the  end  of  the  week. 
Compute  how  much  water  was  used,  and  how  much  it  cost  for  a 
day  or  week. 

HI.  MEANS  OF  TRAVEL 
A,  The  locomotive 

Usually  some  boy  in  the  class  has  a  toy  steam  engine.  Ask  him 
to  bring  it  to  school.  Set  the  engine  going  and  notice  what  happens 
in  the  various  parts.  Help  the  children  to  understand  the  prin- 
ciples involved. 

B.  Thetrottey 

The  trolley  is  propelled  by  the  motor,  and  the  electro-magnet 
is  an  important  part  of  a  motor,  so  that  in  order  to  understand  how 
the  motor  works  we  will  first  study  the  action  of  the  magnet. 

1.  The  Magnet. 

Apparatus:  Two  bar  magnets,  horseshoe  magnet,  pieces  of 
metals,  such  as  iron,  steel,  tin,  zinc,  a  dime,  a  copper,  a  nickel, 
sheets  of  iron,  tin,  and  zinc,  piece  of  glass,  cardboard,  thin  piece 
of  board,  such  as  cover  of  chalk  box,  iron  filings,  darning  needle. 

a.  Magnetic  substances.  Take  a  magnet  and  try  a  great  many  sub- 
stances to  see  which  it  will  attract.  Find  the  greatest  distance  that 
a  piece  of  iron  is  attracted.  Put  the  end  of  the  magnet  in  a  box  of 
tacks.    Try  various  portions  of  the  magnet  and  see  which  is  the 
strongest  part.   Put  the  magnet  in  iron  filings. 

Test  needles,  phis,  pens,  etc.,  to  see  if  they  are  made  of  iron  or 
steel. 

b.  Action  of  magnetism  through  various  substances.    Place  sheets 
of  various  kinds  of  substances  such  as  glass,  paper,  wood,  iron,  tin, 
zinc,  etc.,  over  a  pile  of  tacks,  and  hold  the  magnet  over  the  sheet 
and  see  if  the  tacks  are  attracted.   Determine  through  which  sub- 
stances the  magnetism  does  not  act. 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY  175 

c.  Action  of  magnets  toward  each  other.    (In  case  a  bar  magnet 
cannot  be  obtained,  one  may  be  made  from  a  knitting-needle,  if 
a  horseshoe  magnet  is  on  hand,  as  explained  later  under  e.)  Make  a 
stirrup  of  a  piece  of  wire  and  suspend  a  bar  magnet  or  a  magnetized 
knitting-needle  in  this  by  means  of  a  string.   Bring  the  north  pole 
of  the  other  magnet  near  the  north  pole  of  the  suspended  magnet. 
Bring  it  near  the  south  pole.   What  difference  do  you  note?   Try 
various  combinations  till  you  can  tell  the  law  that  the  magnets 
follow. 

d.  The  magnetic  field. 

(1)  Place  a  bar  magnet  on  the  table  and  put  over  it  a  sheet  of 
paper.     Sprinkle  iron  filings  over  this  paper.    Make  a  drawing 
showing  the  way  the  filings  arrange  themselves.  Put  two  like  poles 
of  two  bar  magnets  about  an  inch  apart  and  sprinkle  the  iron 
filings.  Draw.  Do  the  same  with  two  unlike  poles.   Draw.    What 
is  the  difference  in  the  arrangement  of  the  filings?   Place  a  horse- 
shoe magnet  under  the  paper  and  sprinkle  the  filings. 

(2)  To  make  blue  prints  of  the  magnetic  field.    Repeat  the  pre- 
vious experiments,  only,  instead  of  the  ordinary  paper,  use  a  piece 
of  blue-print  paper  over  the  magnets.    Place  in  a  shaded  part  of 
the  room  and  sprinkle  filings  on  the  paper.  Carefully  place  a  piece 
of  glass  on  the  filings  and  put  the  magnet  and  all  in  the  sunlight 
and  allow  to  stand  till  the  paper  becomes  bronze.    This  will  take 
from  five  to  twenty  minutes,  according  to  the  light.    Then  shake 
off  the  filings  and  wash  the  paper  in  several  changes  of  water  and 
then  dry. 

e.  How  to  make  magnets.  Rub  one  end  of  a  needle  on  one  end  of 
a  magnet,  rubbing  several  times  in  the  same  direction.   Then  rub 
the  other  end  of  the  needle  on  the  other  end  of  the  magnet.  See  if 
the  needle  will  pick  up  tacks.    The  blade  of  a  jack-knife  may  be 
magnetized  by  rubbing  over  a  magnet.     Try  bringing  another 
needle  near  a  pole  of  a  magnet,  but  not  quite  touching  it.   See  if 
the  needle  becomes  magnetized. 

Break  a  magnetized  needle  in  two.  Test  each  end  of  both  pieces 
to  see  if  they  are  magnetic,  and  if  each  piece  has  both  a  north  and 
a  south  pole. 

2.  The  electro-magnet. 

Apparatus:  Large  nail  or  bolt  about  six  inches  long,  about 
twenty  feet  of  insulated  wire,  dry  cell,  tacks,  magnet. 

a.  An  electro-magnet  is  an  important  part  of  a  motor.    It  can 


176  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

» 

be  made  as  follows:  Wind  about  ten  feet  of  insulated  wire  around 
a  large  nail  or  bolt,  as  thread  is  wound  on  a  spool.  Place  the  end 
of  the  nail  in  a  pile  of  tacks.  Is  it  a  magnet?  Connect  the  wire  with 
a  dry  cell.  Is  it  a  magnet  now?  Withdraw  the  nail  and  see  whether 
the  coil  will  pick  up  fewer  or  more  tacks.  Disconnect  the  cells. 
What  happens?  Connect  the  cells  again.  See  if  a  needle  can  be 
magnetized  by  rubbing  against  the  nail. 

b.  Test  the  electro-magnet  by  bringing  it  near  the  end  of  a  sus- 
pended magnet  or  compass  to  see  if  it  has  a  north  and  south  pole. 
Change  the  connection  of  the  cell  so  that  the  current  passes  through 
the  wire  in  the  opposite  direction.    Test  again  for  the  north  and 
south  pole.   What  difference  do  you  find? 

c.  Wind  five  feet  of  wire  around  the  nail  and  see  how  the  number 
of  tacks  it  lifts  compares  with  the  number  when  ten  feet  of  wire 
were  used.  Try  twenty  feet  and  note  the  difference.  Try  two  cells 
and  compare  the  number  of  tacks  lifted  when  one  cell  is  used 
with  the  same  length  of  wire.  In  what  ways  do  these  experiments 
show  that  the  strength  of  an  electro-magnet  may  be  increased? 

3.  Toy  motor. 

Usually  some  boy  in  the  class  has  a  toy  motor  that  he  will  be 
glad  to  bring  to  school.  Notice  the  structure  of  the  motor.  Connect 
with  a  cell  and  notice  how  the  motor  works.  Help  the  children 
to  an  explanation  of  the  principles  involved. 

C.  The  boat 
1.  How  a  boat  floats. 

Apparatus:  Spring  balance,  stone,  block  of  wood,  small  plate, 
shot,  egg,  salt,  funnel. 

a.  To  show  the  buoyant  effect  of  water  on  a  sinking  body,  weigh 
a  stone  on  a  spring  balance.    Then  weigh  it  while  suspended  in 
water.   How  much  has  it  lost?   To  what  is  this  loss  due? 

b.  To  show  the  buoyant  effect  on  a  floating  body,  fill  a  small  pail 
as  full  of  water  as  possible.    Set  it  in  a  plate.    Weigh  a  block  of 
wood.  Place  it  on  the  surface  of  water  in  the  pail,  catching  the  over- 
flow in  the  plate.    Find  how  much  the  water  in  the  plate  weighs. 
How  does  the  weight  of  the  block  of  wood  compare  with  the  weight 
of  the  water  it  displaced?   Try  several  pieces  of  wood. 

Put  some  shot  in  a  test  tube  and  float  the  tube  in  a  dish  of  water. 
Glass  and  shot  are  both  heavier  than  water.  Why,  then,  does  the 
tube  float?  Ships  are  made  of  steel  which  is  heavier  than  water. 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY  177 

Why  do  steel  boats  float?  Add  more  shot  to  the  tube.  What  hap- 
pens? Remove  some  shot.  What  happens?  Why?  WThat  fact  does 
this  illustrate  about  the  loading  and  unloading  of  a  boat? 

c.  To  show  the  difference  between  the  buoyancy  of  fresh  and  salt 
water,  put  an  egg  into  a  dish  filled  with  fresh  water.  What  happens? 
Put  an  egg  into  a  strong  solution  of  salt  and  water.  What  happens? 
What  makes  the  difference? 

S.  How  the  boat  is  propelled. 

Apparatus:  flask,  rubber  stopper  with  one  hole,  glass  tube,  toy 
windmill. 

a.  Steamboats  are  run  by  the  steam  engine.  The  following  simple 
experiment  illustrates  the  principle  of  a  kind  of  steam  engine,  called 
the  steam  turbine,  that  is  now  being  commonly  used  on  steamships. 

b.  To  make  a  toy  windmill,  take  a  square  piece  of  paper  and  cut 
from  each  corner  inward  nearly  to  the  center.    Fold  over  every 
other  point.    Pass  a  pin  through  the  four  points  and  through  the 
center  of  the  paper  and  then  into  a  wooden  handle. 

c.  Insert  in  the  flask  a  rubber  stopper  with  a  hole  through 
which  has  been  passed  a  short  piece  of  small  glass  tubing  drawn 
nearly  to  a  point  so  as  to  leave  only  a  small  opening.    Heat  the 
flask  until  the  water  boils  vigorously.  Then  hold  the  windmill  over 
the  glass  tubing  where  the  steam  is  escaping.    What  makes  the 
wheel  revolve? 

3.  How  the  boat  is  guided. 

Apparatus:  Compass,  magnet,  two  darning-needles,  cork,  knit- 
ting-needle, cell,  toy  gyroscope. 

a.  The  compass.  Note  in  what  direction  the  needle  of  the  com- 
pass points.  Bring  the  north  end  of  a  magnet  near  the  north  pole 
of  the  compass.  Then  bring  it  near  the  south  pole.  What  is  the 
difference  in  the  action? 

Connect  the  two  posts  of  a  cell  with  a  wire.  Hold  this  wire  in  a 
north-and-south  direction  over  the  compass  and  note  result.  Turn 
the  wire  around  and  hold  it  over  the  needle.  WThat  difference  do 
you  notice? 

Magnetize  a  knitting-needle  as  explained  in  a  previous  experi- 
ment (page  175).  Fold  a  piece  of  paper  about  an  inch  square 
diagonally.  Place  the  needle  in  the  crease  of  paper  and  suspend  the 
paper  by  means  of  a  thread.  In  what  position  does  the  needle  come 
to  rest?  Move  it  and  try  several  times.  Does  it  always  come  to  the 
same  position? 


178  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Magnetize  a  large  darning-needle  by  rubbing  the  point  on  the 
north  end  of  a  magnet,  and  the  eye  on  the  south  pole.  Magnetize 
another  needle  by  rubbing  the  point  on  the  south  pole  of  the  magnet 
and  the  eye  on  the  north  pole.  Cut  two  thin  pieces  of  cork  from  a 
stopper  and  float  the  needles  on  these  pieces.  In  what  position  do 
they  come  to  rest?  Do  the  points  of  both  needles  point  in  the 
same  direction?  Can  you  explain? 

b.  The  gyroscope.  Follow  the  instructions  that  come  with  the 
gyroscope.  What  is  the  peculiarity  of  this  toy?  A  gyroscope  is  often 
used  instead  of  a  compass  to  guide  ships.  Can  you  see  how  it  could 
be  used  for  this  purpose? 

4.  How  the  submarine  sinks  and  rises. 

Put  the  stopper  in  a  bottle  and  place  the  bottle  in  water.  Why 
does  it  float?  Fill  the  bottle  with  water.  Put  in  the  stopper  and 
place  the  bottle  in  water.  Why  does  it  sink?  Remove  the  bottle 
and  pour  out  the  water.  Insert  the  stopper  and  push  the  bottle 
down  to  the  bottom  of  the  dish  and  then  let  go  of  the  bottle.  WThat 
happens?  Why?  How  could  this  same  principle  be  used  in  making 
a  submarine  sink  and  rise? 

IV.  TAKING  PICTURES 
A.  Pin-hole  camera 

To  make  a  pin-hole  camera,  secure  a  small  pasteboard  box  about 
two  inches  deep.  Cut  a  hole  about  an  inch  square  in  the  cover  and 
fasten  over  this  a  piece  of  white  tissue  paper.  In  the  middle  of 
the  side  opposite  make  a  pin-hole.  Point  this  hole  toward  a  lighted 
candle  and  cover  the  head  and  box  with  a  cloth  or  jacket.  What 
do  you  see  on  the  tissue  paper?  What  is  the  position  of  the  image? 
How  does  the  size  of  the  image  change  as  the  camera  is  brought 
nearer  the  object  or  taken  farther  away? 

Hold  a  reading-lens  about  three  feet  from  the  candle  and  place 
a  white  piece  of  paper  behind*  the  lens  till  a  clear  image  of  the 
candle  is  formed.  WThat  improvement  has  the  lens  made  in  the 
image  over  the  one  formed  by  the  pin-hole  camera? 

B.  The  ordinary  camera 

1.  A  focusing  kodak  can  usually  be  obtained  from  some  member 
of  the  class  and  brought  to  school.  One  lesson  may  be  given  on  the 
structure  of  the  kodak  and  the  method  of  making  exposures. 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY  179 

2.  If  a  developing  tank  can  be  obtained  from  some  member  of 
the  class  for  a  second  lesson,  the  method  of  developing  films  in  this 
tank  may  be  shown  by  actually  developing  a  film. 

3.  For  a  third  lesson  methods  of  printing  may  be  shown.    Two 
types  of  paper  may  be  illustrated,  the  developing,  like  velox, 
and  the  printing,  like  blue  print.   Prints  from  blue  print  can  be 
made  in  the  schoolroom  during  the  daytime,  and  they  are  very 
easily  treated  because  it  is  only  necessary  to  put  them  in  cold  water 
and  then  dry  them.  The  blue  print  may  also  be  used  to  make  out- 
lines of  objects,  such  as  leaves,  ferns,  laces,  and  other  thin  articles. 


V.  METHODS  OF  TELLING  TIME 
A.  The  hour-glass 

Procure  two  small  bottles  of  the  same  size,  each  provided  with 
stoppers.  Make  a  hole  in  the  center  of  each  stopper,  and  push 
through  it  a  piece  of  glass  tubing  twice  as  long  as  the  thickness  of 
the  stopper,  so  that  both  stoppers  shall  be  on  the  same  tubing,  one 
at  each  end.  Fill  one  bottle  with  fine  sand.  Insert  the  stopper. 
Place  the  other  bottle  on  the  other  stopper.  Invert  the  bottles. 
How  long  does  it  take  for  all  the  sand  to  fall  through?  Change  the 
amount  until  it  passes  through  in  a  definite  time,  such  as  two  or 
five  minutes. 

B.  The  pendulum  clock 

1.  Suspend  a  small  pail  by  means  of  a  string.  Set  in  motion  and 
count  the  number  of  vibrations  it  makes  in  a  minute.   Put  about 
an  inch  of  sand  or  any  small  heavy  objects  in  the  pail,  and  see  if 
the  weight  makes  any  difference  in  the  number  of  vibrations. 

2.  Suspend  a  stone  from  a  string  about  a  yard  long.  Start  it  to  vi- 
brating through  a  small  arc  and  count  the  number  of  swings  it 
makes  in  a  minute.    Set  it  to  vibrating  through  a  long  arc  and 
see  whether  the  number  of  vibrations  in  a  minute  changes. 

3.  Make  the  string  about  half  as  long  and  see  how  the  number 
of  vibrations  is  affected.  Make  it  longer  than  the  first  and  note  the 
change  in  the  number  of  vibrations.    If  a  pendulum  clock  gains 
time,  what  should  be  done  to  the  pendulum?  What  if  it  loses? 

4.  Change  the  length  of  the  string  until  it  beats  just  once  in  a 
second.   How  long  is  it?   What  else  besides  a  pendulum  is  needed 
to  make  a  clock?  What  purpose  does  a  pendulum  serve  in  a  clock? 


180  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

5.  What  effect  does  each  of  the  following  factors  have  on  the 
time  of  vibration  of  a  pendulum:  weight,  length,  and  distance 
through  which  the  pendulum  swings? 

VI.  SOME  SIMPLE  MACHINES  THAT  MAKE  MAN'S  WORK  EASIEB 
A.  The  lever 

Apparatus:  Yardstick,  triangular  block  of  wood,  jack-knife, 
hammer,  scissors,  nut-cracker,  can-opener. 

1.  Place  the  center  of  the  yardstick  over  the  edge  of  the  prism, 
which  is  called  the  fulcrum.    On  each  end  place  books  of  equal 
weights  at  equal  distances    What  happens?  On  one  end  place  two 
books  and  move  the  prism  till  the  stick  balances.    W7here  is  the 
prism  situated?  If  the  power  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  long  arm 
and  the  weight  to  be  lifted  at  the  end  of  the  short  arm,  what  ad- 
vantage does  the  lever  have?  If  the  power  and  weight  are  reversed, 
what  advantage  does  the  lever  then  have? 

2.  Put  the  prism  at  the  middle  of  the  stick.    Place  weights  on 
the  stick  at  different  distances  till  the  stick  balances.   Try  a  num- 
ber of  combinations  and  find  the  relation  that  exists  between  the 
two  weights  and  the  length  of  the  arms  measured  from  the  fulcrum 
to  the  center  of  the  weights.  When  using  a  teeter,  how  do  children 
apply  the  principles  brought  out  by  these  experiments? 

3.  Use  a  hammer  to  draw  a  nail,  open  the  blade  of  a  jack-knife, 
cut  some  paper  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  crack  a  nut  with  a  nut- 
cracker, open  a  can  with  a  can-opener.  In  each  case  explain  how  it  is 
an  application  of  the  lever  by  pointing  out  the  fulcrum,  the  power, 
and  the  weight.    Find  as  many  other  applications  of  the  lever  as 
you  can. 

B.  Inclined  plane 

Apparatus:  Smooth  board  about  two  feet  long,  spring  balance, 
a  small  toy  cart. 

1.  Place  one  end  of  the  board  on  a  pile  of  books.    Weigh  the 
cart.    Pull  it  up  the  board  by  means  of  the  spring  balance.  How 
does  the  force  required  compare  with  the  weight  of  the  cart? 

2.  Put  weights  in  the  cart  and  perform  the  experiment  again. 

3.  Vary  the  height  of  the  board  and  see  how  the  power  necessary 
to  pull  up  the  cart  varies  with  the  height. 

4.  What  advantage  do  these  experiments  show  that  the  inclined 
plane  has?   What  applications  of  the  inclined  plane  can  you  find? 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY  181 

C.  The  screw 

Apparatus:  Screw,  screwdriver,  carpenter's  brace,  and  screw- 
driver bit,  vise. 

1.  Measure  the  length  of  a  screw,  and  divide  this  by  the  number 
of  threads  in  order  to  get  the  distance  between  two  threads.   How 
far  must  the  hand  turn  in  using  a  screwdriver  to  turn  in  the  screv 
one  thread?  In  using  the  carpenter's  brace  how  far  must  the  hand 
move? 

2.  Measure  the  distance  between  two  threads  of  a  vise.    How 
far  does  the  hand  move  in  advancing  the  vise  one  thread?    This 
distance  divided  by  the  distance  between  two  threads  gives  the 
number  of  times  the  force  applied  at  the  handle  is  multiplied. 

3.  What  ad  vantage  has  the  screw?  Find  as  many  applications  of 
the  screw  as  you  can. 

4.  Look  carefully  at  the  following  machines,  and  write  down  all 
the  simple  machines  you  find  in  each:  a  sewing  machine,  a  washing 
machine,  a  bicycle,  a  typewriter,  and  a  clothes  wringer. 


VII.  EVENING  ENTERTAINMENTS 
A.  The  violin  and  piano 

Apparatus:  Box  about  two  feet  long,  banjo  or  violin  strings  of 
different  materials  and  different  sizes,  three  bricks. 

1.  Secure  a  box  about  two  feet  long  with  the  cover  removed. 
In  the  board  at  one  end  drive  three  nails,  about  an  inch  apart. 
To  two  of  these  nails  fasten  strings  made  of  the  same  material, 
but  of  different  size.  To  the  third  fasten  a  string  made  of  different 
material,  but  of  the  same  size  as  one  of  the  others. 

2.  At  the  other  end  of  the  box  cut  three  notches  opposite  the 
three  nails.     Pass  the  strings  across  these  notches  and  fasten  a 
brick  to  the  end  of  each.    Strike  a  large  string  and  then  a  small 
string,  both  of  the  same  material,  with  the  finger.    What  is  the 
difference  in  pitch?  Strike  a  string  of  gut  and  then  one  of  metal  of 
the  same  size  and  note  the  difference  in  pitch. 

3.  To  one  string  fasten  two  bricks  and  strike  it  with  the  finger. 
How  does  its  pitch  compare  with  that  when  only  one  brick  was 
attached? 

4.  Halfway  down  the  length  of  the  box  place  a  stick  across  the 
box  under  the  strings.   Hold  one  string  securely  against  this  stick 


182  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

and  strike  the  string  with  the  finger.  How  does  the  pitch  now  com- 
pare with  that  when  the  string  was  twice  as  long? 

5.  These  experiments  show  that  pitch  depends  on  what  four 
factors?  Which  of  these  factors  are  used  hi  determining  the  pitch 
of  the  notes  on  each  of  the  following  instruments:  the  piano,  banjo, 
mandolin,  and  guitar?  If  you  do  not  recall  how  all  of  these  are 
made,  look  them  up  and  report  to  the  class. 

B.  The  movies 

Apparatus:  Toy  magic  lantern,  cardboard  about  six  inches 
square,  string. 

1.  The  moving-picture  machine. 

The  moving-picture  machine  is  a  stereopticon  so  arranged  that 
the  pictures  are  shown  rapidly,  about  sixteen  per  second.  If  pos- 
sible, obtain  from  some  child  a  toy  magic  lantern.  Have  the  chil- 
dren notice  the  structure  of  the  various  parts.  Darken  the  room  by 
pulling  down  the  curtains  and  show  how  the  machine  works. 

2.  To  learn  why  we  seem  to  see  a  continuous  set  of  pictures  at  the 
movies. 

Cut  out  a  round  piece  of  cardboard  about  six  inches  in  diameter. 
A  half-inch  on  each  side  of  the  center  punch  a  hole  with  the  point 
of  a  pencil.  Through  these  holes  pass  a  string  about  four  feet  long. 
Tie  the  ends,  thus  making  a  loop  about  a  foot  long  on  each  side. 
Hold  a  string  at  the  center  with  a  pin,  and  with  a  radius  of  two  inches 
draw  four  separate  arcs  of  a  circle,  about  half  an  inch  long  and 
equally  spaced.  These  lines  represent  the  pictures  thrown  on  the 
screen,  and  the  blank  spaces  between  represent  the  intervening 
time  when  the  screen  is  darkened. 

Hold  the  loop  on  each  side  by  the  thumbs  and  have  some  one 
turn  the  cardboard  till  the  string  is  twisted.  Then  pull  gently  on 
the  strings  with  the  thumbs,  thus  making  the  cardboard  revolve. 
Watch  the  side  with  the  arcs  on  it  and  note  what  one  sees.  How  do 
you  explain  the  fact  that  these  four  lines  seem  to  make  a  continuous 
circle?  Erase  two  opposite  lines  and  then  rotate  the  card.  Then 
erase  one  of  the  remaining  two  and  try  again.  Try  a  line  nea/  the 
center  and  one  out  near  the  circumference  of  the  cardboard,  and 
see  if  it  makes  any  difference.  Try  rotating  the  disc  fast  and  then 
slow,  and  note  the  difference.  What  determines  whether  the  dashes 
seem  to  make  a  continuous  circle  or  not? 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY  183 

In  the  movies  about  sixteen  pictures  per  second  are  thrown  on 
the  screen,  each  remaining  about  one  thirty-second  of  a  second,  and 
between  the  pictures  the  screen  is  darkened  for  about  the  same 
length  of  time,  so  that  the  screen  is  darkened  and  has  no  pictures 
on,  it  for  about  one  half  of  the  time.  How  does  this  experiment 
help  illustrate  what  we  see  at  the  movies? 


VIII.  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  KITCHEN 
A.  Acids,  bases,  and  salts 

Materials:  Red  and  blue  litmus  paper,  vinegar,  ammonia,  lime 
water,  lemon. 

1.  Pour  a  little  vinegar  into  a  dish.   Place  in  it  a  small  strip  of 
blue  litmus  paper.   This  is  the  test  for  an  acid. 

2.  Pour  a  little  ammonia  into  a  dish.  Place  in  it  a  small  strip  of 
red  litmus  paper.   This  is  the  test  for  a  base. 

3.  Dissolve  some  salt  or  sugar  in  water.    Put  in  this  a  piece  of 
red  litmus  and  also  one  of  blue  litmus.  Does  any  change  take  place? 
This  is  said  to  be  a  neutral  solution. 

4.  Get  as  many  common  substances  as  you  can  from  the  kitchen, 
such  as  lemon,  orange,  lime  water,  sugar,  sour  milk,  sweet  milk, 
buttermilk,  baking  soda,  cream  of  tartar,  baking  powder,  tomatoes, 
apple,  any  fresh  fruit,  tea,  coffee,  washing  soda,  wood  ashes.  Test 
each  one  of  these  with  both  red  and  blue  litmus  paper.    Test  the 
juices  of  the  fruits.  Dissolve  the  powders  in  water.  Pour  water  on 
the  ashes  and  then  filter.   Steep  the  tea  and  coffee  in  water.   Place 
the  name  of  each  substance  in  the  proper  place  under  the  following 
headings:  — 


Acid 

Base 

Neutral 

B.  Hard  and  soft  water 

Materials:  soap,  test  tube,  alcohol  lamp. 

1.  Make  a  soap  solution  by  heating  a  little  soap  in  soft  water  in 
a  test  tube.  Take  a  little  hard  water  and  add  to  it  a  measured  quan- 


184  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

tity  of  soap  solution.  Note  the  results.  Take  the  same  quantity  of 
soft  water  and  add  the  same  quantity  of  soap  solution  as  in  the  pre- 
vious experiment.  What  difference  do  you  notice? 

2.  Add  more  soap  solution  to  the  first  test  tube  and  see  if  it  if 
possible  to  get  a  good  lather  by  adding  enough  soap. 

3.  Boil  some  hard  water  for  several  minutes.     Then  add  th( 
same  amount  of  soap  solution  to  the  same  amount  of  water  as  in 
the  first  experiment  and  see  if  any  better  suds  are  formed.    If  boil- 
ing removes  the  hardness,  it  is  called  temporary. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

WEATHER  AND  SKY  STUDIES 
I.  Weather  studies 

Weather  observations.  Many  instructive  studies  can  be 
carried  on  in  connection  with  the  weather.  One  of  the  first 
things  to  do  is  to  have  the  children  make  observations  on 
the  weather  and  have  records  kept  in  the  schoolroom.  These 
may  well  be  carried  on  for  a  month  in  the  autumn,  a  month 
in  the  winter,  and  a  month  in  the  spring. 

For  the  primary  grades  a  pictorial  record  may  be  kept 
on  the  blackboard  or  on  a  large  piece  of  cardboard.  On 
this  should  be  copied,  much  enlarged,  the  calendar  for 
the  month,  showing  the  days  of  the  week  and  the  number 
of  the  days  in  the  month.  Squares  or  circles  of  gummed 
colored  paper  may  be  taken  to  represent  the  kinds  of 
weather,  a  certain  color  for  each  kind  of  weather.  The  fol- 
lowing colors  are  suggested  for  the  kinds  of  days:  yellow 
for  sunny,  black  for  cloudy,  white  for  snowy,  green  for 
rainy,  and  red  for  windy. 

For  the  intermediate  grades  more  definite  records  may 
be  kept,  as  suggested  in  the  following  table:  — 


•  Date 

Temperature 

Sky 

Wind 

Precipitation 

Kind 

Amount 

186  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Under  temperature  may  be  recorded  whether  hot,  warm, 
cold,  or  very  cold;  under  sky,  whether  clear  or  cloudy;  under 
wind,  the  velocity,  whether  calm,  light,  or  heavy;  under 
kind  of  precipitation,  whether  rain  or  snow;  under  amount, 
whether  light  or  heavy. 

In  the  grammar  grades  more  accurate  records  may 
be  made  by  the  use  of  instruments  —  the  thermometer, 
weather  vane,  and  barometer. 

Weather  charts  for  primary  grades.  A  great  variety  of 
charts  may  "be  made  by  primary  children.  Following  are 
suggested  some  topics  for  these  charts:  — 

Autumn  Work  and  Play. 

Getting  Ready  for  Winter. 

Signs  of  Spring. 

Signs  of  Winter. 

Work  which  Snow  Makes. 

Work  which  Snow  Helps. 

Fun  .which  the  Snow  Brings. 

Pictures  illustrating  these  topics  may  be  cut  out  by  the 
children  and  pasted  on  a  piece  of  cardboard. 

Study  of  weather  maps.  In  the  grammar  grades  a  study 
of  weather  maps  may  be  made.  These  may  be  obtained  free 
by  writing  to  the  nearest  weather  station  in  the  State 
where  maps  are  published,  and  explaining  the  purpose  for 
which  they  are  intended. 

The  children  should  first  study  the  various  features  of 
the  map  so  that  they  may  understand  what  they  mean,  the 
isotherms,  isobars,  arrows,  etc.  The  weather  conditions 
accompanying  the  low  and  high  areas  should  be  noted. 
By  studying  maps  for  several  successive  days  the  direction 
in  which  the  areas  move  and  their  velocity  may  be  deter- 
mined. Finally,  some  of  the  principles  involved  in  weather 
forecasting  may  be  brought  out,  and  the  children  may  try 
to  forecast  the  weather  for  the  next  day  from  the  maps. 


WEATHER  AND  SKY  STUDIES  137 

To  find  the  dew  point.  The  following  experiment  may  be 
performed  in  the  grammar  grades.  Secure  a  tin  cup  with 
brightly  polished  surface  on  the  outside.  In  this  put  some 
snow  or  crushed  ice  mixed  with  salt,  and  stir  with  a  ther- 
mometer. Watch  the  outside  of  the  dish  and  when  the 
first  dew  appears,  take  the  reading  of  the  thermometer.  Pour 
warm  water  in  the  dish,  stir,  and  when  the  dew  disappears, 
read  the  thermometer.  The  average  of  these  two  readings  is 
the  dew  point  for  the  room.  If  all  the  air  in  the  room  were 
to  be  lowered  to  this  temperature,  what  would  happen? 

77.  Sky  studies 

The  heavenly  bodies  are  the  most  common  and  important 
factors  in  the  child's  life.  In  the  study  of  science  we  may 
lead  the  children  to  make  observations  on  their  changes 
and  may  teach  them  some  of  the  more  interesting  facts 
about  them. 

To  measure  the  length  of  the  sun's  shadow.  To  find  the 
length  of  the  sun's  shadow  at  noon,  a  shadow  stick  may  be 
made  by  driving  a  nail  into  one  end  of  a  board.  The  length 
of  the  nail  and  board  should  be  so  adjusted  that  the  shadow 
of  the  nail  falls  on  the  board.  Straight  back  from  the  nail 
mark  off  distances  in  inches,  halves,  quarters,  and  eighths, 
so  that  the  length  of  the  shadow  may  be  read  at  a  glance. 
Place  the  board  so  that  the  long  axis  points  north  and  south. 
At  noon  measure  the  length  of  the  shadow,  or  else  make  a 
mark  on  the  board  and  write  the  date  opposite.  These 
readings  should  be  made  about  once  a  week,  and  on  a  cer- 
tain day.  Once  a  month  have  the  position  of  the  end  of  the 
shadow  marked  every  hour  from  9  A.M.  till  4  P.M.  Connect 
these  dots  with  a  line.  How  do  these  curves  compare  from 
month  to  month?  Instead  of  marking  on  the  board,  a  piece 
of  paper  may  be  laid  on  the  board  and  the  marks  and  curves 
made  on  this. 


188 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 


Have  the  readings  of  the  length  of  shadow  put  in  the  form 
of  a  table  on  the  blackboard  or  on  a  piece  of  cardboard. 
At  the  end  of  the  series  of  observations  have  the  significance 
of  the  changes  discussed. 

Observations  on  the  moon.  Let  the  primary  children 
make  a  moon  chart,  similar  to  that  for  the  weather  suggested 
on  page  185.  Make  a  calendar  for  a  month  on  a  piece  of 
cardboard.  Beginning  with  the  new  moon  have  the  children 
report  every  few  days  on  the  shape  of  the  moon.  Let  them 
cut  out  a  piece  of  yellow  paper  to  represent  the  shape  of 
the  moon  as  they  see  it,  and  paste  this  on  the  calendar  in 
the  proper  place.  Have  this  kept  for  a  month. 

For  the  children  in  the  intermediate  and  grammar  grades, 
more  careful  and  complete  records  may  be  kept  in  the  form 
of  the  following  table,  which  may  be  kept  on  the  board  or 
on  a  piece  of  paper:  — 


Phase 
(shape) 

Time  of 
setting  or  rising 

Place  of 
setting  or  rising 

The  record  of  the  place  of  rising  and  setting  may  be  made 
in  terms  of  the  points  of  the  compass.  Have  the  observations 
begin  at  the  time  of  the  new  moon  and  continue  for  a  month. 
Reports  should  be  made  twice  a  week.  At  each  report  have 
a  drawing  made  showing  the  shape  of  the  moon.  Have  these 
drawings  made  side  by  side  on  the  same  piece  of  paper,  so 
that  by  the  end  of  the  month  the  child  will  have  drawings 
of  about  eight  phases. 

Have  the  children  note  the  position  of  the  moon  in  the 
sky  with  reference  to  some  group  of  stars,  and  see  if  it  keeps 
the  same  position.  How  much  does  it  change  in  a  week? 


WEATHER  AND  SKY  STUDIES  189 

In  order  to  make  clear  the  phases  of  the  moon,  color  one 
half  of  a  ball  yellow  with  crayon  to  represent  the  lighted 
portion  of  the  moon,  and  the  other  half  black  to  represent 
the  part  in  shadow.  Hold  the  ball  in  different  positions  so 
as  to  represent  the  different  phases  of  the  moon. 

The  stars:  constellations.  In  connection  with  the  study 
of  stars  the  children  may  be  taught  to  recognize  the  more 
conspicuous  constellations.  The  best  way,  if  it  is  possible, 
is  to  go  out  with  the  children  some  evening.  But  in  place 
of  this  the  observations  of  the  children  may  be  directed  by 
the  teacher  in  the  schoolroom. 

The  first  step  is  to  have  the  children  find  the  Great  Dipper 
and  the  North  Star.  Then  take  up  the  circumpolar  constel- 
lations that  never  set  in  this  latitude;  the  Little  Dipper, 
Cassiopeia's  Chair,  the  Dragon,  and  Cepheus.  The  remain- 
ing stars  may  be  taken  up  hi  three  groups;  the  early  autumn 
stars,  the  winter  stars,  and  the  late  spring  stars,  each  at  the 
appropriate  time. 

In  preparation  for  the  study  of  a  certain  constellation, 
the  teacher  should  place  on  the  board  a  diagram  showing 
the  position  of  the  stars  in  the  constellation,  and  should 
explain  how  to  find  them  with  reference  to  other  stars  that 
the  children  already  know.  After  opportunity  has  been 
given  for  the  children  to  make  observations,  the  reports 
should  be  made  and  discussed  in  class.  Detailed  suggestions 
on  how  to  take  up  the  study  of  the  different  constellations 
are  given  in  Comstock's  Handbook  of  Nature-Study. 

Interesting  facts  about  the  heavenly  bodies.  In  connec- 
tion with  these  observations  on  the  heavenly  bodies,  the 
teacher  should  explain  to  the  children  some  of  the  more 
interesting  facts  about  them.  An  attempt  may  first  be  made 
to  give  the  children  some  conception  of  the  solar  system 
as  a  whole.  In  order  to  do  this,  diagrams  should  be  drawn 
on  the  board.  Circles  may  be  drawn,  of  the  correct  proper- 


190  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

tionate  size,  to  show  the  relative  sizes  of  sun,  moon,  earth, 
and  other  planets.  Starting  with  a  dot  to  represent  the  sun, 
other  dots  may  be  placed  on  the  board  to  represent  approxi- 
mately the  relative  distances  of  the  various  planets  from 
the  sun. 

The  relative  sizes  could  be  illustrated  by  making  balls 
out  of  clay  or  putty,  or  by  blowing  up  toy  balloons  to  vari- 
ous sizes.  The  diameter  of  the  sun  is  approximately  one  hun- 
dred times  as  great  as  that  of  the  earth.  If  a  balloon  is  blown 
up  to  a  size  of  one  foot  to  represent  the  sun,  then  a  ball  of 
putty  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  would  represent 
the  earth,  and  another  ball  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch 
(about  one  half  as  large  as  the  head  of  a  pin)  would  repre- 
sent the  moon.  The  sizes  of  the  other  planets  could  be  shown 
by  balls  of  clay  or  putty. 

In  the  winter-time  snowballs  could  be  made  out  of  doors 
to  represent  the  sizes  of  the  various  heavenly  bodies.  If  a 
snowball  a  half-inch  through  represents  the  earth,  a  ball 
four  feet  through  would  represent  the  sun,  and  one  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  through,  the  moon. 


PART  VI 
OUTLINE  OF  SCIENCE  INSTRUCTION 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

BASIS  FOR  ORGANIZATION  OF  OUTLINE  OF  SCIENCE 

General  principles.  There  are  certain  principles  which 
must  underlie  all  teaching,  and  these  principles  must  apply 
to  science  teaching.  Still  further,  there  are  certain  princi- 
ples which  must  underlie  all  science  teaching,  whether  in 
Maine  or  in  California.  The  particular  topics  taught  must 
vary  according  to  the  locality,  but  the  underlying  princi- 
ples must  be  the  same. 

In  times  past,  there  have  been  those  who  advised  that 
there  should  be  no  organized  course  in  science,  but  that  there 
should  be  a  miscellaneous  study  of  whatever  materials  hap- 
pened to  be  found  by  the  teacher  or  children.  The  need  of 
a  well-organized  course  assigning  definite  topics  to  certain 
grades  is  now  so  well  recognized  that  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  discuss  it  further. 

Basis  for  organization.  The  basis  for  the  organization  of 
this  outline  has  been  sought  hi  the  child's  life  rather  than  in 
the  subject-matter;  and  in  the  interests  and  needs  of  the 
child's  present  life  and  immediate  future,  rather  than  in  the 
interests  and  needs  of  the  distant  and  indefinite  future.  In 
thus  stressing  the  present,  the  future  is  not  overlooked,  for 
the  fulfillment  of  the  child's  present  needs  is  the  best  pos- 
sible preparation  for  the  fulfillment  of  his  future  needs  when 
these  may  arise. 

The  purpose  has  been  to  make  the  outline  psychologically 
and  pedagogically  logical  from  the  child's  standpoint,  rather 
than  technically  and  systematically  logical  from  the  scien- 
tist's standpoint. 

The  general  principle,  governing  in  the  selection  of  topics 


194  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

for  this  outline  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows:  any  topic 
is  worthy  of  a  place  in  direct  proportion  to  the  number  and 
value  of  the  elements  which  it  possesses  in  common  with  the 
child's  life. 

Four  points  of  view.  The  selection  and  arrangement  of 
topics  in  the  outline  may  be  considered  from  four  stand- 
points: (1)  the  general  aims  of  nature-study;  (2)  the  phases 
of  nature-study  included;  (3)  the  seasons  of  the  year;  (4) 
the  age  of  the  child. 

The  arrangement  of  topics  from  the  standpoint  of  aims 
and  phases  has  been  discussed  in  previous  chapters,  and  is 
shown  diagrammatically  in  figures  1  and  2. 

The  seasons.  The  natural  activities  of  the  seasons  have 
been  followed,  the  various  plants  and  animals  being  studied 
when  they  are  most  in  evidence.  This  puts  the  agricultural 
and  biological  phases  in  the  autumn  and  spring,  leaving  the 
physical,  astronomical,  and  hygienic  phases  to  be  taken  up 
during  the  winter.  In  the  autumn  special  attention  is  given 
to  late  flowers,  trees,  and  insects;  and  in  the  spring  to  spring 
flowers,  birds,  and  gardening. 

In  the  study  of  trees,  the  same  species  is  studied  through 
one  grade  in  the  autumn,  winter,  and  spring,  thus  showing 
the  different  aspects  of  tree  activities. 

In  the  autumn  certain  groups  of  cultivated  flowers  and 
vegetables  are  studied.  In  the  following  spring  the  seeds  of 
these  same  flowers  and  vegetables  are  suggested  for  planting. 
In  the  autumn  some  bulbs  are  studied  and  planted  both  in- 
doors and  out  of  doors.  In  the  winter  and  spring  the  flowers 
which  develop  from  these  bulbs  are  studied. 

Such  a  large  proportion  of  the  school  year  comes  during  the 
cold  months  that  special  plans  should  be  made  to  improve 
the  opportunity  offered  during  the  first  half  of  the  fall  term 
and  the  last  half  of  the  spring  term  to  study  plants  and  ani- 
mals in  their  outdoor  activities.  In  order  that  the  greatest 


BASIS  FOR  SCIENCE  OUTLINE  195 

advantage  may  be  taken  of  these  seasons,  a  brief  seasonal 
outline  of  topics  is  given  for  the  fall  and  spring  terms,  im- 
mediately following  the  main  outline,  suggesting  the  order 
in  which  the  various  topics  may  most  effectively  be  studied. 
This  seasonal  outline  is  arranged  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  seasons  in  southern  Minnesota.  Some  modifications 
will  need  to  be  made  for  States  farther  south. 

Age  of  child.  The  child  is  the  fundamental  consideration 
that  determines  the  main  features  of  the  outline.  For  the 
primary  grades  those  plants  and  animals  have  been  chosen 
which  the  children  could  most  naturally  and  easily  be  led 
to  observe,  on  account  of  their  bright  colors,  large  size,  ac- 
tivities, or  common  occurrence.  The  chief  emphasis  is  placed 
on  identification. 

In  the  intermediate  grades  the  plants  and  animals  have 
been  classified  into  groups  based  on  their  habitat  and  habits. 
Identification  still  remains  a  prominent  factor,  as  in  the  pri- 
mary grades,  but  to  this  are  added  the  idea  of  adaptation  of 
plants  and  animals  to  their  surroundings,  and  their  classi- 
fication into  groups  as  mentioned  above.  Children's  plays 
and  sports  have  been  made  the  center  around  which  some 
simple  studies  in  physics  have  been  grouped. 

In  the  grammar  grades  the  general  thought  is  the  relation 
of  these  various  phases  of  science  to  human  welfare.  Two 
centers  have  been  chosen  around  which  to  group  these  topics, 
the  home  in  the  seventh  grade,  and  community  life  in  the 
eighth  grade. 

In  connection  with  the  various  topics  in  the  outline  there 
have  been  given  corresponding  children's  problems  which 
may  serve  as  the  central  thought  of  the  lesson,  suggesting 
the  points  to  be  considered. 

Principles  followed  in  constructing  the  science  outline.  The 
principles  used  in  the  organization  of  the  outline  given  in  the 
following  chapter  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows:  — 


196  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

1.  The   course   should   cover   all   phases   of  elementary 
science  adapted  to  the  grades.    (Biology,  hygiene,  elemen- 
tary agriculture,   elementary  physics  and  chemistry,   as- 
tronomy.) 

2.  This  material  should  be  organized  from  the  child';, 
standpoint,  and  not  the  adult's. 

3.  The  basis  for  organization  should  be  found  in  the 
child's   needs   and   interests,    instead  of   in   the   subject- 
matter. 

4.  This  basis  should  be  found  in  the  needs  and  interests 
of  the  child's  present  life  or  of  his  immediate  future,  instead 
of  in  those  of  the  distant  future. 

5.  The   arrangement  of  topics   should  depend   on   the 
seasons. 

6.  The  course  should  be  adapted  to  local  conditions. 

7.  In  the  lower  grades  the  dominant  purpose  should  be 
the  aesthetic;  in  the  upper  grades  the  dominant  purposes 
should  be  the  economic  and  social. 

8.  The  topics  for  the  primary  grades  should  deal  largely 
with  the  study  of  plants  and  animals;  the  work  for  upper 
grades  should  cover  all  phases  of  elementary  science. 

9.  The  topics  for  study  in  the  primary  grades  should  in- 
clude the  most  conspicuous  plants  and  animals  in  the  child's 
environment,  selected  from  the  standpoint  of  color,  activi- 
ties, size,  and  occurrence. 

Brief  synopsis  of  outline.  In  order  that  the  general  plan 
and  organization  of  the  outline  may  be  seen  at  a  glance,  a 
brief  synopsis  of  the  detailed  outline  found  in  the  pages  fol- 
lowing is  given  here. 

FIRST  GRADE 

Autumn 
I.  Nature's  Autumn  Colors. 

Flowers:  nasturtium,  wild  sunflower;  colored  leaves:  maple 
and  box  elder. 


BASIS  FOR  SCIENCE  OUTLINE  197 

II.  Preparation  for  Winter. 

Food;  garden;  seeds;  animal  preparation. 
III.  Seasonal  Changes. 

Approach  of  autumn  and  winter;  weather  records. 

Winter 
I.  Holiday  Studies. 

Christmas  dinner;  trees;  flowers. 
II.  Home  Studies. 
Pets;  the  cat. 

III.  Health  Studies. 

Foods;  air;  bathing;  clothing. 

IV.  Weather  Studies. 

Weather  records;  uses  of  ice  and  snow. 

Spring 

Central  thought:  the  returning  spring 
I.  The  Awakening  Trees. 

Maple,  box  elder,  pussy  willow,  and  poplar. 
II.  The  Awakening  Flowers. 

Dandelion,  Jack-in-the-pulpit. 

III.  The  Awakening  Seeds. 

Lima  bean,  dwarf  nasturtium. 
Schoolroom  gardening;  home  gardens. 

IV.  The  Returning  Birds. 

Robin,  bluebird. 
V.  New  Life  among  Animals. 
VI.  The  Changing  Season. 

Wind;  rain;  changes  in  brook;  weather  records. 

SECOND  GRADE 

Autumn 
I.  Nature's  Autumn  Colors. 

Flowers:  goldenrods,  thistle;  colored  leaves:  elm,  linden. 
II.  Animal  Activities.  - 

Spider,  grasshopper,  cricket. 

III.  Preparation  for  Winter. 

Food;  gardens;  seeds;  animal  preparation. 

IV.  Seasonal  Changes. 

Approach  of  autumn  and  winter;  weather  records. 


198  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Winter 
I.  Holiday  Studies. 

Christmas  dinner;  trees;  flowers. 
II.  Home  Studies. 
Pets;  the  dog. 

III.  Health  Studies. 

Air;  bathing;  clothing. 

IV.  Weather  Studies. 

Weather  records;  forms  of  ice  and  snow. 

Spring 

Central  thought:  the  returning  spring 
I.  The  Awakening  Trees. 

Elm,  linden. 

II.  The  Awakening  Flowers. 
Hepatica,  spring  beauty. 

III.  The  Awakening  Seeds. 

Pea,  radish,  climbing  nasturtium. 
Schoolroom  gardening;  home  gardens. 

IV.  The  Returning  Birds. 

Red-,winged  blackbird,  Baltimore  oriole,  chimney  swift. 
V.  New  Life  among  Animals. 

Toad's  eggs. 
VI.   The  Changing  Season. 

Signs  of  spring;  changes  in  brook;  weather  records. 

THIRD  GRADE 

Autumn 
I.  Nature's  Autumn  Colors. 

Flowers:  the  asters;  colored  leaves:  oaks,  fruit  trees. 
II.  Animal  Activities. 
Mosquitoes. 

III.  Preparation  for  Winter. 

Food;  gardens;  seeds;  animal  preparation. 

IV.  Seasonal  Changes. 

Approach  of  autumn  and  winter;  weather  records. 

Winter 
I.  Holiday  Studies. 

Christmas  dinner;  trees;  flowers;  Christinas  dinner  for  the 
birds. 


BASIS  FOR  SCIENCE  OUTLINE  199 

II.  Home  Studies. 

Child's  home;  homes  of  animals. 

III.  Health  Studies. 

Food;  air;  bathing;  clothing. 

IV.  Weather  Studies. 

Weather  records;  freezing;  evaporation;  condensation. 

Spring 

Central  thought:  the  returning  spring 
I.  The  Awakening  Trees. 
Oaks  and  fruit  trees. 
II.  The  Awakening  Flowers. 
Violets. 

III.  The  Awakening  Seeds. 

Corn,  zinnia. 

Schoolroom  gardening;  home  gardens. 

IV.  The  Awakening  Animals. 

Moth  for  cocoon;  turtles. 
V.  The  Returning  Birds. 

Scarlet  tanager,  rose-breasted  grosbeak,  house  wren;  nest- 
ing-house for  wren;  Audubon  Bird  Club. 
VI.  New  Life  among  Animals. 

Ways  of  hatching  hen's  eggs. 
VII.  The  Changing  Season. 

Signs  of  spring;  changes  in  brook;  weather  records. 

FOURTH  GRADE 

Autumn 
I.  Garden  Studies. 

Cultivated  flowers  —  hardy  annuals;  bulbs;  root  vege- 
tables. 
II.  Plants  in  Nature's  Garden. 

Flowers  of  shady  places;  mushrooms;  nut  trees. 

III.  Some  Animal  Friends  and  Foes. 

Earthworms;  insects  —  social  insects;  insect  activities. 

IV.  Aquarium  Studies. 

Fishes. 
V.  Fall  Sports. 

The  swing  and  slide. 


200  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Winter 
I.  Plants  in  Winter. 

Shapes  of  trees;  winter  decorations. 
II.  Health  Studies. 

Food;  air;  sleep;  the  eyes;  lighting  the  home. 

III.  Christmas  Toys. 

Motor,  magnet,  steam  engine,  flying  machines. 

IV.  Winter  Sports. 

Coasting. 
V.  Sky  Studies. 
The  sun. 

Spring 

I.  The  Awakening  Life  of  Spring. 

Nut  trees,  brightly  colored  wild  flowers;  cultivated  flowers 
from  bulbs. 
II.  The  Returning  Life  of  Spring. 

Birds  of  the  dooryard  and  shade  trees;  fountains;  nesting- 
houses  for  wren;  Audubon  Bird  Club. 
III.  Gardening. 

Hardy  annual  flowers  and  root  vegetables. 
Schoolroom  gardening;  home  gardens. 

FIFTH  GRADE 

Autumn 
I.  Garden  Studies. 

Tender  annual  flowers;  bulbs;  house  plants;  vegetables 
whose  fruits  or  seeds  are  eaten. 
II.  Plants  in  Nature's  Garden. 

Flowers  that  grow  hi  sunny  places;  ferns;  shade  trees; 
plants  that  move. 

III.  Some  Animal  Friends  and  Foes. 

Water  insects;  flies;  spiders;  crayfish. 

IV.  Some  Plant  Foes. 

Poisonous  plants. 
V.  Aquarium  Studies. 

Scavengers  of  the  aquarium  —  snail  and  tadpole. 
VI.  Fall  Sports. 

Giant  stride  and  teeter. 


BASIS  FOR  SCIENCE  OUTLINE  201 

Winter 

I.  Plants  and  Animals  in  Winter. 

Bark  of  trees;  winter  decorations;  winter  birds. 
II.  Health  Studies. 

Drinks;  food;  breathing;  clothing;  skin. 

III.  Winter  Pleasures. 

Outdoor  sports;  evening  entertainments. 

IV.  Sky  Studies. 

The  moon. 

Spring 

I.  The  Awakening  Life  of  Spring. 

Shade  trees;  white  spring  flowers;  cultivated  perennial 
flowers. 
II.  The  Returning  Life  of  Spring. 

Birds  of  the  air*,  nesting-houses  for  wren  and  bluebird; 
nesting-habits;  Audubon  Bird  Club. 
HI.  The  New  Life  of  Spring. 

Frog's  eggs. 
IV.   Gardening. 

Tender  annual  flowers  and  vegetables  whose  leaves  are 
eaten. 

Schoolroom  gardening;  home  gardens. 


SIXTH  GRADE 

Autumn 
I.  Garden  Studies. 

Vines;  vine  crops;  flowers  from  spring-planted  bulbs;  plant- 
ing fall  bulbs;  fruit  trees;  weeds  of  the  garden. 
II.  Plants  in  Nature's  Garden. 

Vines;  shrubs;  mosses  and  lichens;  tree  fruits;  fruits  for 
winter  birds. 

III.  Some  Friends  and  Foes  of  the  Garden. 

Insects;  birds;  toads. 

IV.  Aquarium  Studies. 

Water  plants. 
V.  Fall  Sports. 
Bicycling. 


202  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Winter 

I.  Plants  and  Animals  in  Winter. 

Buds  of  trees;  winter  decoration;  birds. 
IT.  Health  Studies. 

Foods;  heating  and  ventilation;  clothing;  avoiding  disease; 
the  blood  system;  accidents. 
HI.  Christmas  Studies. 

Evergreens. 
IV.  Winter  Sports. 

Roller  skating. 
V.  Sky  Studies. 

The  Stars  and  planets. 
VI.  Some  Simple  Machines  that  make  Man's  Work  easier. 

Pulley,  screw,  wedge. 
VH.  How  Glass  Helps  People. 

Spectacles,  opera  glasses,  camera. 
Vm.  Helps  hi  Being  Prompt. 

Watches  and  clocks;  school  electric  bell;  old  methods  of 
telling  time. 

Spring 

I.  Awakening  Life  of  Spring. 

Fruit  trees;  cultivated  shrubs. 
H.  The  Returning  Life  of  Spring. 

Birds  of  the  meadows  and  fields  and  of  marshes;  bird  ene- 
mies; work  of  Audubon  Society;  migration;  open  nesting- 
houses;  Audubon  Bird  Club. 

III.  Gardening. 

Vines  and  vine  crops. 

Schoolroom  gardening;  home  gardens. 

IV.  Spring  Sports. 

Outdoor  toys:  kite,  windmill,  water  wheeL 


SEVENTH  GRADE 
Central  thought  for  the  grade:  the  hygiene  and  science  of  the  home 

Autumn 

I.  Making  the  Home  Yard  Attractive. 
Shrubs;  vines;  flowers. 


BASIS  FOR  SCIENCE  OUTLINE  203 

n.  Making  the  Yard  Useful. 

The  vegetable  and  fruit  gardens. 

III.  Insect  Pests  of  the  Household. 

IV.  Heating  the  Home. 
V.  Ventilating  the  Home. 

Winter 

I.  Lighting  the  Home. 
II.  The  Home  Water  Supply. 
III.  The  Food  Supply. 

IV.  Entertainment  in  the  Home 

Musical  instruments. 

Spring 
I.  Making  the  Yard  Attractive. 

Shrubs;  vines;  flower  garden. 
II.  Making  the  Yard  Useful. 

Vegetable  and  fruit  gardens;  bee-keeping;  poultry-keeping. 

III.  Enemies  of  the  Garden. 

Injurious  insects. 

IV.  Friends  of  the  Garden. 

Beneficial  insects;  toads;  birds;  attracting  birds  around  the 
home;  bird  songs  and  plumage. 

V.  Soils  of  the  Garden. 

EIGHTH  GRADE 

Central  thought  for  the  grade:  the  sanitation  and  science  of 
community  life 

Autumn 
I.  Insects  that  Threaten  Health. 

Fly  and  mosquito. 

IL  Insects  in  Relation  to  Growing  Crops. 
Insect  foes;  insect  friends. 

III.  Plant  Enemies  of  Crops. 

Weeds;  fungous  diseases. 

IV.  Forest  Trees. 

V.  Means  of  Travel. 

On  land;  on  water;  in  the  air. 
VI.   Means  of  Communication. 
Telephone  and  telegraph. 


204  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Winter 

I.  Public  Health  and  Sanitation. 

Board  of  health;  milk  supply;  food  supply;  water  supply; 
contagious  diseases;  sewage  disposal;  parks  and  playgrounds; 
fire  protection;  care  of  streets;  lighting. 
IE.  School  Hygiene. 

Ventilation  and  heating;  lighting;  drinking-fountains;  play- 
grounds; medical  inspection. 

Spring 
I.  Forestry. 

Uses  of  forests;  decrease;  enemies;  forest  control;  reserva- 
tions; conservation;  Bureau  of  Forestry;  uses  and  structure 
of  woods;  work  of  the  parts  of  a  tree. 
H.  Bird  Friends  of  the  Forests. 

Special  study  of  birds  of  the  woods;  economic  value  of  birds; 
adaptations  in  the  structure  of  birds;  enemies;  work  of  Na- 
tional Government  to  protect  birds. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

DETAILED  OUTLINE  OF  SCIENCE  BY  TOPICS  AND 
PROBLEMS 

(Arranged  according  to  Grades  and  Seasons) 
FIRST  GRADE 

Autumn 
I.  Nature's  Autumn  Colors. 

1.  Gathering  wild  flowers;  excursion  to  gather  bou- 
quet for  schoolroom;  group  according  to  color; 
flower  games;  make  flower  chart.    Special  study 
of  wild  sunflower. 

2.  Flowers  from  home  and  school  gardens;  compare 
with   colors   of  wild    flowers;    make   a   booklet 
"Mother's  Garden." 

3.  Special  study  of  dwarf  nasturtium,  the  garden 
flower  suggested  for  spring  planting. 

Problems  — 

How  many  different  colors  can  we  find  among  the 

flowers  that  grow  around  here? 
Have  the  garden  flowers  the  same  colors  as  the 

wild  flowers? 
How  can  we  tell  the  nasturtium  the  next  time  we 

see  it?   (See  page  119.) 
How  can  we  have  more  nasturtiums  for  next  year? 

4.  Autumn  coloring  of  leaves. 

A.  Gather  a  variety  of  colored  leaves;  group 
according  to  color. 

B.  Special  study  of  maple  and  box-elder. 


206  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Problems  — 

How  many  different  colors  can  we  find  among  the 

autumn  leaves?   (See  page  95.) 
How  can  we  tell  a  maple  tree  from  a  box-elder  tree? 

II.  Preparation  for  Winter. 

1.  Food  for  the  winter. 

A.  Study  of  vegetables  grown  around  the  lo- 
cality. 

B.  Trip  to  grocery  store:  names  of  fruits  and 
vegetables  seen;  note  farmers'  wagons. 

Problems  — 

What  things  have  been  done  so  that  we  might  have 

these  tomatoes?   (See  page  119.) 
What  vegetables  that  we  eat  were  grown  in  our 

own  locality? 

How  do  they  grow  in  the  garden? 
Which  vegetables  grow  on  top  of  the  ground  and 

which  in  the  ground? 
How  do  the  vegetables  get  from  the  farmer  to  the 

grocer? 

2.  Provision  for  winter  and  spring  gardens. 

A.  Indoor  planting  of  Chinese  lily  bulb  in 
water.   (See  page  126.) 

B.  Outdoor  planting  of  daffodil. 
Problems  — 

How  can  we  have  flowers  of  the  Chinese  lily  in  our 

schoolroom  before  Christmas? 
How  can  we  have  early  spring  flowers  outdoors? 

3.  The  seeds  for  next  year. 

A.  Treasure  boxes  —  fruits  and  vegetables. 

B.  Nature's  seed  sowing-seeds  that  fly. 
Problems  — 

What  kind  of  seeds  can  we  find  in  the  fruits  and 
vegetables  that  we  eat? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FIRST  GRADE          207 

How  are  some  seeds  made  so  they  can  fly?    (See 

page  105.) 
4.  Animal  preparation  for  winter. 

A.  The  squirrel  gathering  his  winter  store. 

B.  Caterpillars  spinning  cocoons;  rear  cater- 
pillars in  schoolroom. 

C.  The   fish   in   winter   quarters  —  aquarium 

studies. 
Problems  — 

How  does  the  squirrel  get  ready  for  winter? 

We  will  watch  the  caterpillar  and  see  how  it  grows 

up. 
What  care  will  the  fish  in  our  aquarium  need  this 

winter? 
How  does  the  fish  live  in  water? 

III.  Seasonal  Changes. 

1.  The  approach  of  autumn  —  first  week  of  term. 
Chart  —  "autumn  work  and  play." 

2.  The  approach  of  winter  —  last  week  of  term. 
Booklet  —  "getting  ready  for  winter." 

8.  Weather  records  kept  for  one  month  (October). 
Pictorial  records  on  large  cards  showing  sunny 
days,    cloudy   days,    rainy   days,    windy   days. 
(See  page  185.) 
Problems  — 

What  signs  do  you  see  that  autumn  is  coming? 
What  signs  do  you  see  that  winter  is  coming? 

TOPICS  ARRANGED  IN  SEASONAL  ORDER 


September 
Approach  of  autumn 
Wild  flowers 
Plant  lily  bulb 
Cultivated  flowers 

October 
Rear  caterpillars 
Plant  daffodil 
Seeds  that  fly 
Trees 
Treasure  boxes 

November 
Weather  records 
Vegetables 
Squirrel 
Fish 
Approach  of  winter 

208  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Winter 
I.  Holiday  Studies. 

1.  Christmas  dinner. 

A.  Local  products. 

B.  Special  study  of  turkey  and  pumpkin. 

2.  Christmas  trees  —  the  pine. 

3.  Flowers  for  the  Christmas  table;  Chinese  lily  from 
bulb  planted  in  the  fall. 

Problems  — 

What  can  we  get  for  our  Christmas  dinner  from 

the  farms  near  here? 
How  do  people  raise  turkeys? 
How  can  we  make  a  Jack-o'-lantern? 
How  can  we  tell  a  pine  from  other  Christmas  trees? 
What  has  happened  to  this  bulb  since  we  planted 

it  last  fall? 

II.  Home  Studies. 

1.  Care  of  pets  —  the  cat. 
Problems  — 

To  what  extent  can  cats  take  care  of  themselves? 

(See  page  85.) 
How  can  we  take  the  best  care  of  our  pet  cats? 

III.  Health  studies. 

1.  Foods  that  help  make  children  strong.  The  cow 
as  the  source  of  milk,  butter,  and  cheese.    Make 
butter  in  schoolroom.    (See  page  86.)    Make  a 
"Good  Breakfast"  chart. 

2.  Fresh  air;  games  played  outdoors;  how  to  get 
fresh  air  in  schoolroom. 

3.  Bathing.      Children    make     individual     "Keep 
Clean  "  charts. 

4.  Clothing  —  special  study  of  cotton  and  woolen 
goods. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FIRST  GRADE          209 

Problems  — 
How  does  the  cow  help  us  to  get  foods?    (See 

page  86.) 

How  should  people  take  care  of  their  cows? 
How  do  we  get  fresh  air  in  the  schoolroom? 
Why  should  we  keep  our  face  and  hands  clean? 
Where  did  your  apron  come  from? 
Where  did  your  winter  dress  come  from? 

IV.  Weather  Studies. 

1.  Weather  records,  kept  for  one  month  (January). 
(See  fall  outline.) 

2.  Uses  and  forms  of  ice  and  snow. 
Problems  — 

How  does  Jack  Frost  make  us  happy? 
What  kind  of  pictures  does  Jack  frost  paint? 
Let  us  make  a  chart  showing  Jack  Frost's  work. 

Spring 

Central  thought:  the  returning  spring 
I.  The  Awakening  Trees. 

1.  Study  of  twigs  of  box-elder  and  maple  kept  in 
water  indoors. 

2.  Study  of  development  of  buds  outdoors;  flowers 
of  soft  maple. 

3.  Special  study  of  pussy  willow  and  pussy  poplar. 

4.  Maple  sugar. 
Problems  — 

What  can  we  find  on  the  twigs  of  the  box-elder  and 

maple? 
When  the  buds  open  what  can  you  see  coming  out 

of  the  buds? 

Why  do  you  like  the  pussy  willow? 
Where  does  maple  sugar  come  from? 


210  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

II.  The  Awakening  Flowers. 

1.  Daffodils  from  bulb  planted  in  fall. 

2.  Calendar  of  wild  flowers. 

3.  An  excursion  for  flowers  for  the  May  basket? 

4.  Special    study    of    dandelion    and    Jack-in-the- 

pulpit. 
Problems  — 

Why  do  you  like  the  daffodil? 

What  colors  did  you  find  for  your  May  basket? 

How  can  you    tell    the    dandelion    from    other 

flowers? 

Why  do  you  think  Jack-in-the-pulpit  is  an  inter- 
esting flower? 

III.  The  Awakening  Seeds. 

1.  Schoolroom  gardening. 

A.  Plant  seeds  of  dwarf  nasturtium  and  Lima 
bean. 

B.  Experiments  with  seeds  and  seedlings. 

a.  What  do  seeds  need  to  grow?    (See 
page  131.) 

b.  Will  seeds  grow  better  in  dirt  or  water? 
In  dry  or  moist  dirt? 

c.  What   effect   does    soaking   have   on 
seeds? 

2.  Home  gardens. 

A.  Order  envelopes  of  penny  packets  of  seed? 
distributed. 

B.  Lessons  on  planting  a  few  common  seeds 
Home  gardens  visited  by  teacher. 

Problems  — 

We  will  start  a  little  garden  indoors  and  plant  the 
nasturtium  and  bean  seeds,  so  we  can  see  how 
they  grow. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FIRST  GRADE          211 

We  will  learn  how  to  plant  radish  seeds,  so  that 
you  can  plant  them  at  home. 

IV.  The  Returning  Birds. 

1.  Bird  calendar.   (See  page  52.) 

2.  Bird  walks. 

3.  Special  study  of  robin  and  bluebird. 

4.  Meetings  of  Audubon  Bird  Club. 
Problems  — 

How  can  we  tell  the  bluebird  when  we  see  it? 

(See  page  64.) 
Why  do  you  like  the  robin? 

V.  New  Life  among  Animals. 

1.  Study  of  hen  and  chickens. 
Problems  — 
How  does  a  hen  care  for  her  chickens? 

VI.  The  Changing  Season. 

1.  The  wind.  Make  a  windy  scene  in  a  box. 

2.  Spring  rains. 

3.  Weather  records  for  a  month  (April).     (See  page 
185.)    Decorate  margin  of  pictorial  record  with 
pictures  of  signs  of  spring. 

4.  Changes  in  the  brook.  Make  a  "growing  "  picture 
of  the  brook,  adding  drawings  of  new  life  that 
appears. 

5.  Lessons  at  beginning  and  end  of  term  on  changes 
in  seasons. 

Problems  — 

Of  what  use  is  the  wind? 

Why  do  you  like  a  rainy  day? 

How  is  the  brook  different  now  than  it  was  a  few 

weeks  ago? 
What  signs  do  you  see  of  the  coming  of  spring? 


212  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

SEASONAL,  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 


March 

April 

May 

Distribute  seed  enve- 

Weather record 

Jack-in-the-pulpit 

lopes 

Spring  rains 

Bank  swallow 

The  wind 

Flower  of  soft  maple 

Hen  and  chickens 

Change  of  seasons 

Changes  in  brook 

Bird  walks 

Twigs  of  trees 

Robin 

Daffodil 

Plant  seeds  indoors 

Pussy  willow 

Excursions  for  flowers 

Experiments  with  seeds 

Lessons  on  home 

Change  of  seasons 

Bird  calendar  started 

gardens 

Maple  sugar 

Flower  calendar 

Dandelion 

Bluebird 

SECOND  GRADE 

Autumn  > 

I.  Nature's  Autumn  Colors. 

1.  Gathering  wild  flowers.  Looking  for  new  flowers. 
A  flower  card  for  each  new  flower  hung  in  room. 

2.  Special  study  of  goldenrod  and  thistle. 

3.  Flowers  from  home  and  school  gardens;  use  in 
schoolroom. 

4.  Study  of  climbing  nasturtium,  the  garden  flower 
suggested  for  spring  planting. 

Problems  — 

How  can  we  tell  the  goldenrod  from  other  flowers? 
(See  page  102.)  Why  do  you  like  the  nasturtium? 

5.  Autumn  coloring  of  leaves. 

A.  Study  of  coloring  of  leaves  of  trees  on  school 
grounds. 

B.  Special  study  of  elm  and  linden. 
Problems  — 

How  many  different  colors  can  we  find  on  the 

leaves  of  trees  growing  on  the  school  grounds? 
How  can  we  tell  the  elm  and  linden  trees  apart? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SECOND  GRADE        213 

II.  Animal  Activities. 

1.  Grasshopper  and  cricket;  keep  indoors  in  cage. 

2.  Spiders;  special  study  of  webs. 
Problems  — 

We  will  watch  the  grasshopper  in  the  cage  to  see 

how  many  different  ways  of  moving  it  has.   (See 

page  74.) 
We  will  watch  the  cricket  to  see  how  it  makes  its 

song. 
What  kind  of  webs  do  spiders  make?    (See  page 

80.) 

III.  Preparation  for  Winter. 

1.  Food  for  the  winter. 

A.  Study  of  home-grown  fruits;  make  charts. 
Have  children  each  bring  some  kind  of  fruit 
to  see  how  many  colors  they  can  find. 

B.  Trip  to  grocery  store.    Canned  fruits  and 
vegetables. 

Problems  — 

What  fruits  that  we  eat  are  raised  in  our  own  State? 
What  canned  goods  are  put  up  in  our  own  State? 

2.  Provision  for  winter  and  spring  gardens. 

A.  Indoor  planting  in  soil  and  water  of  bulb  of 
paper- white  narcissus.    (See  page  126.) 

B.  Outdoor  planting  of  crocus. 
Problems  — 

How  can  we  have  some  flowers  in  our  room  next 
winter? 

How  can  we  get  some  early  spring  flowers  out- 
doors? 

3.  Seed  for  next  year. 

A.  Seeds  from  home  and  school  gardens  stored. 

B.  Nature's  seed  sowing  —  seeds  that  steal  a 
ride? 


214  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Problems  — 

What  seeds  from  our  garden  can  we  save  to  plant 

next  spring? 
How  are  some  seeds  made  so  that  they  can  steal  a 

ride?   (See  page  106.) 
4.  Animal  preparations  for  winter. 

A.  The  rabbit  in  the  fall;  his  winter  quarters. 

B.  Fish  in  winter  quarters;  aquarium  studies; 
need  of  plant  life. 

Problems  — 

What  may  we  learn  about  the  habits  of  the  rabbit 
from  a  study  of  the  one  kept  in  our  schoolroom? 
Why  do  we  keep  plants  in  the  aquarium? 

IV.  Study  of  Seasonal  Changes. 

1.  Approach  of  autumn  —  first  week  of  term.   Au- 
tumn pictures  painted.  A  park  in  autumn;  com- 
pare with  spring. 

2.  Approach  of  winter  —  last  week  of  term.  Winter 
landscape  painted. 

3.  Weather   records   for   one   month    (September). 
Records  in  writing  on  blackboard  or  chart  showing 
temperature,  winds,  clouds,  interesting  weather 
happenings.   (See  page  185.) 

Problems  — 

How  does  our  park  now  differ  from  the  way  it 

looked  last  spring? 
What  signs  do  you  see  that  winter  is  coming? 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 

September  October  November 

Weather  records  Spider  Fruits 

Approach  of  autumn          Grasshopper  Plant  narcissus  bulb 

Wild  flowers  Cricket  Rabbit 

Cultivated  flowers  Plant  crocus  Fish 

Seeds  that  steal  a  ride  Approach  of  winter 

Storing  seeds 

Trees 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SECOND  GRADE        215 

Winter 
I.  Holiday  Studies. 

1.  Christmas  dinner. 

A.  State  products. 

B.  Special  study  of  nuts  and  fruits  of  our  State. 

2.  Christmas  trees  —  spruce  and  red  cedar. 

3.  Flowers  for  the  Christmas  table;  paper- white  nar- 
cissus from  bulb  planted  in  the  fall. 

Problems  — 

What  kinds  of  nuts  grow  in  our  State? 

How  do  people  raise  fruits  in  this  State? 

Why  does  the  spruce  make  a  good  Christmas  tree? 

How  can  we  tell  a  red  cedar  from  other  Christmas 

trees? 
WThy  is  it  nice  to  have  this  narcissus  flower  in  the 

room? 

II.  Home  Studies. 

1.  Home  of  Eskimo  children. 

2.  Care  of  pets  —  the  dog  and  the  canary. 
Problems  — 

How  do  the  homes  of  the  Eskimo  children  differ 

from  your  homes? 

To  what  extent  can  the  dog  take  care  of  himself? 
What  care  should  I  give  my  dog?   (See  page  85.) 
How  many  kinds  of  dogs  are  there?    (See  page 

83.) 

Of  what  use  are  dogs?   (See  page  84.) 
What  are  some  of  the  wild  animal  cousins  of  the 

dog? 
What  makes  the  canary  an  interesting  pet? 

III.  Health  Studies:  How  to  keep  well  and  strong  in  winter. 

1.  Fresh  air;  how  to  get  fresh  air  indoors  at  home. 

2.  Bathing;  need  of  keeping  hands  clean. 


216  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

3.  Clothing  —  study  of  silk  and  leather. 

4.  Good  drinks  for  children;  milk  and  water. 
Problems  — 

How  can  we  get  fresh  air  in  our  homes? 

Why  should  we  wash  our  hands  before  eating? 

Where  did  your  new  silk  tie  come  from? 

How  are  our  shoes  made? 

Why  is  milk  a  better  drink  than  coffee  for  children? 

IV.  Weather  Studies. 

1.  Weather   records   for   one   month    (December). 
Written  records  on  chart  or  blackboard.    (See 
fall  outline.) 

2.  Uses  and  forms  of  snow  and  ice.    Charts:  Work 
Which  Snow  Makes;  Work  Which  Snow  Helps; 
Fun  Which  the  Snow  Brings. 

Problems  — 

How  does  snow  help  people? 
What  fun  does  the  snow  bring  us? 

-     Spring " 

Central  thought:  the  returning  spring 
I.  The  Awakening  Trees. 

1.  Study  of  twigs  of  elm  and  linden  kept  in  water  in- 
doors. 

2.  Study  development  of  buds  of  these  trees  out- 
doors. 

3.  Flower  of  elm  and  linden. 
Problems  — 

How  do  the  twigs  of  the  elm  and  linden  differ? 
Which  comes  out  first  on  these  trees,  leaves  or 

flowers? 
How  are  the  flowers  of  the  elm  different  from  the 

other  spring  flowers? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SECOND  GRADE        217 

II.  The  Awakening  Flowers. 

1.  Crocus  from  bulb  planted  in  the  fall. 

2.  Calendar  of  spring  wild  flowers. 

3.  Excursion  for  flowers  for  May  basket. 

4.  Special  study  of  hepatica  and  spring  beauty. 
Problems  — 

How  can  we  tell  the  crocus  from  other  spring 

flowers? 

Why  do  you  like  the  hepatica? 
How  can  you  tell  the  hepatica  and  spring  beauty 

apart? 

III.  The  Awakening  Seeds. 

1.  Schoolroom  gardening. 

A.  Plant   indoors  seeds  of  pea,   radish,   and 
climbing  nasturtium. 

B.  Eggshell  garden  —  plant  seeds  in  eggshells. 
(See  page  130.) 

C.  What  do  plants  need  to  grow?.  (Answer  by 
experiments.) 

a.  Do  plants  need  water? 

6.  Do  plants  need  light?  (See  page  134.) 

2.  The  home  garden. 

A.  Distribute  seed  envelopes  for  penny  packets. 

B.  Encourage  children  to  plant  seeds  men- 
tioned above '(III,  1,  A). 

C.  Lesson  on  how  to  get  the  garden  ready  and 
how  to  plant  these  seeds. 

D.  Write  for  garden  catalogues. 
Problems  — 

We  will  plant  some  radish  seeds  to  see  if  we  can 
raise  some  radishes  indoors  before  school  closes. 

How  shall  we  get  our  garden  ready  at  home  for 
planting  seeds? 


218  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

IV.  The  Returning  Birds. 

1.  Bird  calendar.  (Seepage  52.) 

2.  Bird  walks. 

3.  Special  study  of  red-winged  blackbird,  Baltimore 
oriole,  and  chimney  swift. 

4.  Building  nesting- houses  for  the  wren. 

5.  Organization  of  Audubon  Bird  Club,  and  meet- 
ings through  term. 

Problems  — 

How  can  we  tell  each  of  these  birds  when  we  see 

them  outdoors? 
How  does  the  swift  differ  from  the  oriole  in  its 

habits? 

Which  do  you  think  is  the  most  interesting  bird? 
What  kind  of  a  house  shall  we  build  for  the  wren? 

(See  page  65.) 

Why  would  it  be  nice  for  us  to  form  a  Bird  Club? 
Why  would  you  like  to  have  a  pair  of  orioles  nest 

in  your  yard? 

V.  New  Life  among  Animals. 

1.  Development  of  toad's  eggs. 
Problem  — 

What  happens  to  the  toad's  eggs  as  they  grow? 

VI.  The  Changing  Season. 

1.  Signs  of  spring.    Booklet  —  Pictures  of  all  the 
new  happenings  outside. 

2.  Weather  records  for  a  month  (March).   Written 
records  on  blackboard  or  chart.   (See  fall  outline.) 

3.  Study  of  changes  in  brook.    Animal  life  in  the 
brook.  Picture  of  the  brook  in  March  and  May. 

Problems  — 

Who  has  seen  the  greatest  number  of  signs  of 

spring? 
What  animals  live  in  our  brook? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  THIRD  GRADE          219 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 


March 

April 

May 

Give  out  seed  envelopes 

Bird  calendar 

Toad's  eggs 

Weather  records 

Flowers  of  elm 

Swift 

Signs  of  spring 

Bird-houses 

Oriole 

Twigs  of  trees 

Bird  club 

Excursion  for  flowers 

Plant  seeds 

Flower  calendar 

Bird  walks 

Experiments    with 

Hepatica 

plants 

Home  garden 

Changes  in  brook 

Spring  beauty 

Crocus 

THIRD  GRADE 

Autumn 
I.  Nature's  Autumn  Colors. 

1.  Gathering  wild  flowers  —  excursions.   Recall  old 
flowers;  add  new  ones. 

2.  Special  study  of  the  different  kinds  of  wild  asters: 
flower  cousins,  wild  and  cultivated  asters. 

3.  Comparison  of  fall  and  spring  flowers. 

4.  Gathering  flowers  from  home  and  school  garden; 
method  of  raising  them. 

5.  Special  study  of  zinnia,  the  garden  flower  sug- 
gested for  spring  planting. 

6.  Insects  seen  around  flowers  —  butterflies,  bees. 
Problems  — 

What  new  flowers  can  you  find  this  fall? 

How  many  different  kinds  of  asters  can  we  find 

growing  around  here  this  fall? 
How  are  the  wild  and  cultivated  asters  alike? 
How  do  the  flowers  we  see  now  differ  from  those 

we  saw  last  spring? 
Why  is  the  zinnia  a  good  flower  to  grow  in  our 

gardens? 
What  do  we  have  to  do  in  order  to  get  these  flowers? 


220  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

What  colors  do  you  find  on  butterflies? 
Why  do  bees  come  to  the  flowers? 

7.  Leaf  coloring. 

A.  Study  of  coloring  of  leaves  of  trees  growing 
along    the    streets  and   in   the    children's 
yards. 

B.  Special  study  of  fruit  trees  and  oaks. 
Problems  — 

How  does  the  coloring  on  the  different  kinds  of 
trees  growing  in  your  yard  differ? 

How  can  we  tell  the  different  kind  of  oaks 
apart? 

Of  what  use  is  the  oak? 

How  can  you  tell  the  apple  tree  by  its  leaves? 

Let  us  see  how  many  different  kinds  of  apples  we 
can  collect? 

8.  Plants  without  flowers. 
Ferns  and  mushrooms. 

Problem  — 

How  do  ferns  and  mushrooms  differ  from  our  fall 
flowers  such  as  the  goldenrod? 

II.  Animal  Activities. 

1.  Mosquitoes;  keep  wigglers  in  tumbler. 
Problem  — 

How  do  these  wigglers  live  in  the  water?  (See 
page  77.) 

III.  Preparation  for  Winter. 
1.  Food  for  the  winter. 

A.  Study  of  fruits  grown  outside  of  our  State. 
Problems  — 

What  fruits  that  we  eat  are  grown  outside  of  our 

State? 
How  do  these  fruits  get  to  us? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  THIRD  GRADE          221 

2.  Provision  for  winter  and  spring  gardens. 

A.  Raising  plants  from  cuttings.  (See  page  128). 

B.  Planting  bulb  of  Dutch  hyacinth  indoors. 
(See  page  126.) 

C.  Planting  bulb  of  Dutch  hyacinth  out  of 
doors. 

Problems  — 

We  will  learn  a  new  way  of  getting  flowers,  that  is 

by  using  cuttings. 

How  can  we  have  flowers  in  our  room  next  winter? 
How  can  we  have  flowers  out  of  doors  in  the  spring? 

3.  Seed  for  next  year. 

A.  Nature's  seed  sowing  —  seeds  that  shoot, 

and  those  scattered  by  birds. 
Problems  — 

How  are  some  plants  fitted  so  as  to  shoot  their 

seeds? 
How  do  birds  help  scatter  seeds? 

4.  Animal  preparation  for  winter. 

A.  The  tadpole  in  winter  quarters  —  aquarium 
studies. 

B.  Departure  of  birds;  comparison  with  bird 
life  in  the  spring;  Bird  Clubs  meet  to  report 
on  experiences  with  bird-houses  the  previous 
summer. 

C.  The  long  winter  sleep  of  animals. 

a.  Hibernation    of    toad,    frog,    snakes, 

turtles. 
Problems  — 

What  does  the  tadpole  do  in  the  aquarium? 
What  birds  of  the  springtime  are  still  here? 
How  do  animals  like  the  toads  and  frogs  spend  the 
winter? 

5 .  Plant  preparation  for  winter ;  trees,  grasses,  flowers. 


222  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Problem  — 

How  do  plants  like  trees,  flowers,  and  grasses  get 
ready  for  winter? 

IV.  Seasonal  Changes. 

1.  The  approach  of  autumn  —  first  week;  written 
records. 

2.  The  approach   of   winter  —  last  week;   written 
records. 

3.  Weather  records  for  one  month  (November).   In- 
dividual records  in  writing. 

Problem  — 

Let  us  see  who  can  write  the  longest  list  of  things 
that  show  autumn  is  coming,  or  that  winter  is 
coming. 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 


September 
Wild  flowers 
Approach  of  autumn 
Cultivated  flowers 
Mosquitoes 
Cuttings 

October 
Flowerless  plants 
Seeds 
Trees 

November 
Weather  records 
Fruits 
Tadpole 
Approach  of  winter 

Winter 
I.  Holiday  Studies. 

1.  Christmas  dinner;  products  from  abroad. 
Problems  — 

What  are  some  of  the  things  for  Christmas  dinner 
that  come  from  other  parts  of  the  world  than 
our  own  State? 

How  do  they  get  to  us? 

What  nuts  do  we  get  that  are  raised  outside  of 
our  State? 

2.  Christmas  dinner  for  the  birds.   (Use  old  Christ- 
mas tree.) 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  THIRD  GRADE          223 

Problems  — 

What  kind  of  Christmas  gifts  do  birds  like? 
What  kind  of  birds  will  come  to  the  feast? 

3.  Christmas  greens. 

A.  Christmas  trees  —  evergreens  of  our  locality. 

B.  Holly  and  mistletoe. 
Problems  — 

How  can  we  tell  the  evergreens  of  our  locality 
apart?   (See  page  95.) 
Why  are  holly  and  mistletoe  used  for  decorations? 

4.  Flowers  for  the  Christmas  table.  Dutch  hyacinth 
planted  in  fall. 

Problems  — 
What  has  happened  to  this  bulb  since  we  planted 

it? 
Why  has  it  been  worth  while  to  raise  this  flower? 

II.  Home  Studies. 

1.  Child's  home. 

A.  Warming  the  home  —  the  thermometer. 

B.  Lighting  the  home  (compare  with  primitive 
methods). 

Problems  — 

In  how  many  different  ways  are  our  homes  warmed  ? 
How  can  we  tell  from  the  thermometer  when  the 

room  is  warm  enough? 
How  do  our  ways  of  lighting  our  homes  differ 

from  the  ways  that  were  used  many,  many  years 

ago? 

2.  Homes  of  animals. 

A.  Deserted  homes  —  birds'  nests. 

B.  Insect    homes  —  galls,    cocoons,    nests    of 
paper  and  mud  wasps. 

C.  Domesticated  animals,  the  cow  and  horse. 


224  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Problems  — 

Of  what  materials  do  birds  make  their  nests? 

What  kind  of  homes  do  wasps  make? 

What  kind  of  homes  do  the  gall-dwellers  live  in? 

(See  page  75.) 

Of  what  kind  of  materials  are  insect  homes  made? 
How  are  insect  homes  made? 
In  how  many  ways  is  the  cow  useful  to  us?    (See 

page  86.) 

Of  what  use  is  the  horse? 
How  many  different  kinds  of  horses  are  there? 
How  should  horses  be  cared  for? 

III.  Health  Studies. 

1.  Foods  that  help  keep  one  well  and  strong.   Em- 
phasize the  sources;  the  industrial  relations. 

2.  Fresh  air;  need  of,  how  get  in  sleeping-room. 

3.  Bathing;  cold  and  warm  water  baths. 

4.  Clothing  —  study  of  fur  and  linen. 

A.  Classify  clothing  materials  into  plant  and 

animal  products. 
Problems  — 

What  are  some  of  the  foods  that  are  good  for  us 

to  eat? 

•  How  does  an  orange  get  to  us? 
Why  do  we  need  fresh  air? 
How  can  we  get  fresh  air  in  our  sleeping-rooms? 
Which  is  better,  the  warm  water  or  cold  water  bath? 
How  did  your  father  get  his  fur  coat? 
Where  did  your  handkerchief  come  from? 

IV.  Weather  Studies. 

1.  Weather  records  for  one  month  (February).  Writ- 
ten individual  records.   (See  page  185.) 

2.  Condensation,  evaporation,  freezing.  (See  page  172.) 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  THIRD  GRADE         225 

Problems  — 

How  can  we  show  that  there  is  water  in  the  air  of 

this  room?   (See  page  172.) 
What  happens  when  water  boils? 
What  harm  is  done  by  freezing  water?   (See  page 

172.) 
What  good  is  done  by  freezing  water? 

Spring 

I.  The  Awakening  Trees. 

1 .  Study  of  twigs  of  oaks  and  fruit  trees  kept  in  water. 

2.  Development  of  buds  outdoors. 

3.  Study  of  flowers  of  fruit  trees. 

4.  Calendar  of  blossoming  trees. 
Problems  — 

How  can  we  tell  these  twigs  apart  before  the  leaves 
come  out? 

Which  appear  first,  the  leaves  or  blossoms  on  the 
oaks  and  fruit  trees? 

What  are  the  names  of  the  parts  of  an  apple  blos- 
som? 

Why  do  you  like  the  apple  blossom? 

II.  The  Awakening  Flowers. 

1.  Dutch  hyacinth  from  bulb  planted  in  fall. 

2.  Calendar  of  wild  flowers. 

3.  Excursion  for  wild  flowers  for  May  basket. 

4.  Special  study  of  dog-toothed  violet  and  the  blue, 
white,  and  yellow  violets. 

Problems  — 

What  do  you  like  about  this  hyacinth  flower? 
How  may  the  different  violets  be  told  apart? 
What  are  the  names  of  the  parts  of  a  violet  flower? 
Of  what  use  is  each  part  of  the  violet  flower? 


226  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

III.  The  Awakening  Seeds. 

1.  Schoolroom  gardening. 

A.  Plant  indoors  seeds  of  corn  and  zinnia. 

B.  Experiment  to  show  use  of  cotyledon  of  pet 
to  seedling. 

2.  Home  gardens. 

A.  Distribute  order  envelopes  for  penny  packets 
of  seeds. 

B.  Lesson  on  home  gardens;  planting  seeds, 
use,  care;  gardens  visited  by  teacher. 

C.  Charts  showing  pictures  of  flowers  easily 
grown  and  of  vegetables  easily  grown.   Re- 
ports on  father's  garden. 

Problems  — 
We  will  plant  seeds  of  corn  and  zinnia  so  as  to  watch 

the  plants  and  see  how  fast  they  grow. 
Why  would  you  like  to  have  a  garden? 
What  must  you  do  if  you  wish  to  have  a  garden  this 

spring? 
How  should  seeds  be  planted?   (See  page  125.) 

IV.  The  Awakening  Animals. 

1.  Turtles,  frogs,  snakes. 

2.  Development  of  moth  from  cocoons  collected  in 
fall  and  winter  or  from  the  caterpillars  reared  in 
fall. 

Problems  — 

How  do  turtles  differ  from  other  animals  that  you 
know? 

How  is  this  moth  (or  butterfly)  different  from 
other  insects  that  you  know,  such  as  the  grass- 
hopper? 

V.  The  Returning  Birds. 

1.  Bird  calendar.   (See  page  52.) 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  THIRD  GRADE         227 

2.  Bird  walks. 

3.  Special  study  of  house  wren,  scarlet  tanager,  and 
rose-breasted  grosbeak. 

4.  Building  nesting-houses  for  the  wren. 

5.  Audubon  Bird  Club  organized  and  meetings  held 
through  term. 

Problems  — 

Which  do  you  think  is  the  prettier  bird,  the  tanager 

or  grosbeak? 

How  can  we  tell  these  from  other  birds? 
Why  would  you  like  to  have  a  wren  nest  around 

your  home  this  summer? 
What  kind  of  a  house  shall  we  make  for  a  wren  to 

nest  in?   (See  page  65.) 
What  can  our  Bird  Club  do  to  help  the  birds? 

VI.  New  Life  among  Animals. 

1.  Methods  of  hatching  hen's  eggs. 
Problem  — 

Which  is  the  better  way  of  hatching  eggs,  to  use 
an  incubator  or  let  the  hen  do  it? 

VII.  The  Changing  Season. 

1.  Signs  of  spring.    Collection  of  pictures,  making 
booklet  to  show  spring's  return. 

2.  Weather  record  for  one  month  (May).  Individual 
record  kept  in  writing. 

3.  Changes  in  brook.  Visit  brook.  Note  changes  in- 
cluded in  signs  of  spring.    Pictures  of  brook  in 
March  and  May. 

Problems  — 

Let  us  make  a  collection  of  pictures  to  show  signs 

of  spring. 
How  does  the  brook  in  May  look  different  than  it 

did  in  March? 


228  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 


March 

April 

May 

Give  out  seed  envelopes 

Bird  calendar 

Weather  record 

Twigs  of  trees 

Start  bird  club 

House  wren 

Plant  seeds  indoors 

Lessons  on  home 

Moth 

Signs  of  spring 

garden 

Grosbeak 

Use  of  food  in  pea 

Calendar  of  tree  flowers 

Hyacinth 

Changes  in  brook 

Turtles 

Flowers  of  fruit  trees 

Flower  calendar 

Tanager 

Violets 

Excursions  for  flowers 

House  for  wren 

Bird  walks 

Hatching  eggs 

Changes  in  brook 

FOURTH  GRADE 

Autumn 
I.  Garden  Studies. 

1.  Report  on  summer  experiences  in  the  garden. 

2.  Cultivated    flowers  —  hardy    annuals,    such    as 
bachelor's  button,  candytuft,  nasturtium,  phlox, 
California  poppy,  sweet  alyssum,  petunia,  zinnia. 

Problems  — 

Which  would  you  prefer  to  have  in  your  garden,  the 
nasturtium  or  bachelor's  button?  (Or  compari- 
son of  any  two  flowers.) 

What  are  the  best  ways  of  telling  these  flowers 
apart?  (Taking  one  or  two  at  a  time.) 

Why  do  you  like  the  nasturtium? 

3.  Planting  bulbs. 

A.  For     outdoor     planting  —  tulips     (single, 
double,  Darwin,  parrot);  daffodils  (single, 
double);  jonquils   (single,  double).     (Plant 
in  school  garden  and  encourage  the  children 
to  plant  at  home.) 

B.  For  indoor  blooming  during  the  winter  — 
double  jonquil  or  daffodil.    (See  page  126.) 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FOURTH  GRADE        229 

Problems  — 

How  may  we  get  flowers  in  the  early  spring? 
How  may  we  have  flowers  in  the  schoolroom  nex' 

winter? 

4.  Vegetables  whose  roots  are  eaten;  such  as  beet, 
carrot,  oyster  plant,  parsnip,  turnip,  kohlrabi, 
celeriac.   (Make  carrot  basket.)    (See  page  133.) 
Problems  — 

How  are  root  vegetables  grown? 

Which  of  these  makes  the  best  kind  of  food? 

In  what  ways  are  these  vegetables  cooked? 

II.  Plants  in  Nature's  Garden. 

1.  Flowers  that  grow  in  shady  places,  such  as  wood 
aster,  tall  bell  flower,  boneset,  cone  flower,  elm 
leafed  goldenrod,  white  lettuce,  white  snakeroot, 
woodland  sunflower,  touch-me-not,  lobelia. 

Problems  — 

What  is  the  best  way  of  telling  each  of  these  flowers 

from  other  flowers? 
Which  do  you  like  the  better  of  any  two  of  these 

flowers? 

2.  Plants  without  flowers. 

A.  Mushrooms. 
Problems  — 

What  are  the  parts  of  a  gill-bearing  mushroom? 
How  do  the  various  mushrooms  differ  from  each 
other?   (See  page  107.) 

3.  Nut  trees;  such  as  butternut,  walnut,  hickories, 
oaks.  Keep  calendar  of  coloring  and  fall  of  leaves. 
(See  page  92.) 

Problems  — 

How  can  we  tell  the  oaks  apart  by  their  leaves? 
How  do  the  acorns  of  the  oaks  differ? 


230  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

What  use  is  made  of  the  wood  of  oak  trees? 
How  can  we  tell  a  butternut  from  a  walnut  tree? 

III.  Some  Animal  Friends  and  Foes. 

1.  Social  insects  such  as  ants,  bees,  wasps. 

2.  Insect   activities;    how  they  eat,  breathe  and 
move. 

Problems  — 

What  can  we  learn  about  the  habits  of  ants  from  a 

study  of  ants  kept  in  a  nest  in  the  schoolroom? 
In  what  ways  is  the  life  of  social  insects  like  the 

social  life  of  human  beings? 
How  do  insects  eat?   (See  page  75.) 
In  how  many  ways  do  insects  move?    (See  page 

75.) 
How  does  the  insect's  way  of  breathing  differ  from 

our  way?   (See  page  75.) 

3.  Earthworms. 
Problems  — 

In  what  ways  are  earthworms  helpful  to  man? 

4.  Squirrels. 
Problems  — 

What  makes  squirrels  interesting  animals  to  have 

around? 
How  many  kinds  of  squirrels  are  there? 

IV.  Aquarium  Studies  —  fishes,  fishes  used  as  food,  native 
fishes. 

Problems  — 

How  does  the  fish  use  its  fins  in  swimming? 
How  does  its  method  of  breathing  differ  from  that 

of  the  frog? 
To  what  extent  do  we  use  fishes  for  food  in  our 

town? 
What  fishes  are  found  around  our  locality? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FOURTH  GRADE        231 

V.  Fall  Sports. 

1.  The  swing;  other  applications  of  the  pendulum, 
such  as  the  clock.    Simple  experiments  showing 
relation  of  length,  weight,  and  arc  to  time  of 
vibration.    (See  page  179.) 

2.  The  slide;  other  applications  of  the  inclined  plane; 
such  as  coal  slide,  plank  for  loading  wagon,  sliding 
down  hill.   (See  page  180.) 

Problems  — 

What  principles  of  the  pendulum  are  illustrated 

in  the  swing? 
What  other  applications  of  the  pendulum  can  you 

find? 
What  other  applications  of  the  inclined  plane  can 

you  find  beside  the  swing? 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 


September 
Wild  flowers 
Soft  mushrooms 
Cultivated  flowers 

October                       November 
Cultivated  flowers          Squirrels 
Insects                             Bulbs  —  indoors 
Bulbs  —  •  out  of  doors     Fish 
Earthworm                      Vegetables 
Trees                                Woody  mushrooms 
Swing  and  slide 

Winter 
I.  Plants  in  Winter. 

1.  Winter  decorations  —  flower  of  jonquil  or  daffo- 
dil planted  in  fall. 

2.  Shapes  of  trees. 
Problems  — 

What  makes  this  an  attractive  plant  to  have  in 

the  schoolroom? 
How  do  trees  differ  in  their  shape? 


232  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

II.  Health  Studies;  how  to  keep  the  body  well  and  strong. 

1.  Foods. 

A.  Foods  that  are  good  for  children.   Empha- 
size the  use  of  plain,  simple  foods  such  a& 
fruits,  vegetables,  meats,  cereals. 

B.  Foods  that  are  not  good  for  children.   Em- 
phasize the  need  of  extreme  caution  in  using 
such  foods   as  rich   cakes,   pastries,   fatty 
meats,  rich  puddings. 

C.  For  each  food  discuss  its  sources,  means  by 
which  it  reaches  the  table,  final  preparation 
for  table,  value  as  food. 

D.  Need  of  thorough  chewing,  care  of  teeth, 
different  sets  of  teeth. 

Problems  — 

What  are  the  most  wholesome  foods  for  us  to 

eat? 
What  are  some  of  the  foods  that  it  is  better  to  leave 

alone  or  eat  only  small  portions  of? 
Why  should  we  take  good  care  of  our  teeth? 
How  can  we  take  good  care  of  our  teeth? 

2.  Air. 

A.  Uses  in  motion;  to  sail  boats,  turn  wind- 
mills, dry  clothes,  keep  one  comfortable  in 
summer. 

B.  Uses  when  quiet;  to  make  fires,  lamps,  and 
gas  jets  burn;  use  to  animals,  plants,  and 
people  in  breathing. 

Problems  — 

Of  what  use  is  air  when  in  motion? 
Of  what  use  is  air  when  quiet? 

3.  Care  of  eyes  and  ears. 

A.  How  to  read,  testing  the  eyes,  use  of  glasses, 
testing  the  ears. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FOURTH  GRADE        233 

Problems  — 

In  what  ways  should  we  be  careful  in  using  our 

eyes? 
How  do  spectacles  help  the  eyes? 

4.  Methods  of  lighting  the  home.   (See  page  170.) 

A.  Candle,  lamp,  gas,  electricity. 
Problems  — 

Which  is  the  best  way  of  lighting  the  home? 
How  does  the  method  of  using  gas  differ  from  that 
of  electricity? 

5.  Sleep;  providing  rest  for  the  body. 

A.  Need  of  sleep,  amount  required,  how  to  get 

fresh  air  in  sleeping-rooms. 
Problem  — 

On  what  does  the  amount  of  sleep  that  one  needs 
depend? 

III.  Christmas   toys;    such   as   magnets,    electro-magnet, 
motor,  steam  engine,  air  ships,  gyroscope,  compass. 
Problems  — 

What  power  does  the  magnet  possess  that  makes 

it  useful?   (See  page  174.) 

How  does  the  steam  engine  work?  (See  page  174.) 
How  does  an  aeroplane  differ  from  a  dirigible 

balloon? 
How  does  the  compass  work?   (See  page  177.) 

IV.  Winter  Sports. 
1.  Coasting. 

A.  Formation  of  snow,  action  of  gravity  on 
sled,  increase  in  speed,  other  illustrations  of 
action  of  gravity. 
Problems  — 

How  many  different  kinds  of  sleds  are  there? 
Under  what  conditions  does  snow  fall? 


234  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

What  other  illustrations  of  the  action  of  gravity 
can  you  think  of? 

V.  Sky  Studies. 

1.  The  sun.  (See  page  187.) 

A.  Its  size,  distance,  motions,  relation  to  earth. 

B.  Observations  on  its  change  in  position  at 
sunrise,  noon,  and  sunset;  and  on  the  change 
of  time  of  sunrise  and  sunset. 

Problems  — 

In  what  ways  is  the  sun  different  from  the  earth? 
What  things  that  we  do  are  influenced  by  the  sun? 

Spring 
I.  The  Awakening  Life  of  Spring. 

1.  Trees. 

A.  Study  of  twigs  of  nut  trees. 

B.  Watch  development  of  twigs  kept  in  water 
indoors. 

C.  Watch  development  of  buds  out  of  doors; 
keep  record  of  dates  when  buds  open. 

Problems  — 

How  can  we  identify  each  of  these  trees  before  the 

buds  open? 
What  is  there  in  the  buds  that  develops  into  leaves 

and  flowers? 

2.  Wild  flowers. 

A.  Brightly  colored  flowers,  such  as    pasque 
flower,  hepatica,  wild  ginger,  bellwort,  wild 
phlox,  Jack-in-the-pulpit. 
Problems  — 

Which  do  you  like  better  the  hepatica  or  wild 

ginger? 

What  makes  the  Jack-in-the-pulpit  an  interesting 
flower? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FOURTH  GRADE        235 

How  can  we  tell  the  bellwort  from  other  flowers? 
Of  what  use  are  the  different  parts  of  the  phlox 

flower? 
3.  Cultivated  flowers. 

A.  Calendar  of  garden  flowers. 

B.  Study  of  flowers  growing  from  bulbs. 
Problems  — 

Which  do  you  like  the  best  of  the  flowers  that  grow 

from  bulbs? 
What  has  been  done  to  raise  these  flowers? 

II.  The  Returning  Life  of  Spring. 
1.  Birds. 

A.  Calendar.   (See  page  52.) 

B.  Changes  in  bird  activities  as  the  season 
advances. 

C.  Special  study  of  the  birds  of  dooryards  and 
shade  trees;  such  as  blue  jay,  English  spar- 
row,   robin,    bluebird,   chipping    sparrow, 
house  wren,  Baltimore  oriole,  yellow  war- 
bler. 

D.  Building  nesting-houses  for  the  wrens. 

E.  Fountains  for  drinking  and  bathing. 

F.  Formation  of  Audubon  Bird  Club;  meetings 
during  term. 

Problems  — 

What  changes  do  you  notice  in  bird  activities  as 
the  season  advances? 

Is  the  English  sparrow  a  nuisance  or  of  value  to  us? 

Of  what  use  is  the  robin  to  us? 

How  is  the  oriole  fitted  for  its  life  in  the  air  and 
among  the  trees? 

How  can  you  tell  the  yellow  warbler  from  the  gold- 
finch? 


236  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

What  kind  of  a  house  shall  we  make  so  as  to  get  a 
pair  of  wrens  to  nest  in  it?  (See  page  65.) 

How  can  we  provide  water  for  the  birds  during  the 
summer? 

Why  would  you  like  to  form  a  bird  club? 

III.  Gardening.  Main  topic:  hardy  annual  flowers,  and  veg- 
etables whose  roots  are  eaten. 
1.  Schoolroom  gardening. 

A.  Early  in  the  season  plant  indoors  a  few 
flower  seeds  and  vegetable  seeds  from  the 
lists  given  below  so  that  later  the  seedlings 
may  be  transplanted  in  the  home  or  school 
gardens. 

a.  Seeds  of  some  of  the  hardy  annual 
flowers,  such  as  sweet  alyssum,  bache- 
lor's button,  calliopsis,  candytuft,  nas- 
turtium, California  poppy,  petunia, 
sunflower,  zinnia. 

6.  Seeds  of  some  of  the  vegetables  whose 
roots  are  eaten,  such  as  beet,  carrot, 
celeriac,  kohlrabi,  oyster  plant,  pars- 
nip, turnip. 
Problem  — 

How  can  we  have  early  flowers  and  vegetables  in 
OUT  gardens? 

B.  Germination  experiments.   (See  page  131.) 

a.  Conditions  for  germination. 

b.  Depth  of  planting. 

c.  Testing  vitality. 

d.  How  squash  seedling  gets  out  of  seed 
coat. 

e.  What  happens  to  cotyledons. 

/.  How  seedlings  break  through  the  soil. 
g.  Use  of  cotyledons  to  seedlings. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FIFTH  GRADE 


237 


h.  To  show  the  expansive  power  of  ger- 
minating seeds. 
2.  Home  Gardens. 

A.  Distribute  order  envelopes  for  penny  pack- 
ets of  seeds. 

B.  Encourage  the  children  to  plant  some  of  the 
seeds  mentioned  above. 

a.  Lessons  on  the  preparation  of  soil,  the 
planting  of  these  seeds,  and  the  subse- 
quent   care    which    these    groups    of 
plants  require. 
Problems  — 

Why  would  you  like  to  have  a  garden  at  home? 
How  can  root  vegetables  be  raised? 
How  can  the  hardy  annual  flowers  be  raised? 
How  should  the  soil  of  the  garden  be  prepared 
before  planting  seeds? 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 


March 

April 

May 

Give  out  seed  envelopes 

Robin 

Calendar  of  garden  flow- 

Twigs of  trees 

Bluebird 

ers 

Plant  seeds  in  room  or 

How  plants  use  water 

Wren 

cold  frame 

Lessons  on  home 

Later  spring  flowers 

Start  bird  calendar 

garden 

Oriole 

Blue  jay 

First  spring  flowers 

Bird  fountains 

English  sparrow 

Chipping  sparrow 

Flowers  from  bulbs 

Form  bird  club 

House  for  wren 

Yellow  warbler 

FIFTH  GRADE 

Autumn 

I.  Garden  Studies. 

1.  Report  on  summer  experiences  in  the  garden. 

2.  Cultivated  flowers  —  tender  annuals ;  such  as  aster, 
balsam,  calendula,  cosmos,  four-o'clock,  marigold, 
portulaca,  velvet  flower.  Effect  of  frost  on  flowers. 


238  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Problems  — 

Which  would  you  prefer  to  have  in  your  garden 

marigold  or  cosmos?    (See  page  120.) 
How  may  each  of  these  flowers  be  identified? 
Why  is  the  velvet  flower  a  desirable  flower  to  have 

in  our  gardens? 
What  garden  flowers  were  not  killed  by  the  first 

heavy  frost? 
S.  Planting  bulbs. 

A.  For    outdoor    blooming;    lilies    and    early 
spring  flowers,  such  as  crocus,  glory  of  the 
snow,  snowdrop,  blue  bells.   Plant  in  school 
garden  and  encourage  children  to  plant  at 
home. 

B.  For  indoor  blooming  during  the  winter  — 
lily-of-the-valley  or  crocus.    (See  page  126.) 

Problems  — 

How  can  we  have  early  flowers  next  spring? 
How  can  we  have  flowers  in  the  schoolroom  next 
winter? 

4.  House  plants. 
Problems  — 

What  plants  will  do  well  indoors? 
What  care  do  these  plants  require? 

5.  Vegetables  whose  fruit  or  seeds  are  eaten;  such  as 
tomato,  egg  plant,  corn,  peas,  beans. 

Problems  — 

How  are  these  vegetables  raised? 
How  can  these  be  kept  for  winter  use? 
Which  of  these  make  the  best  food? 
Which  can  be  raised  most  easily  in  a  small  gar- 
den? 

WTiat  are  the  parts  of  a  corn  plant  that  help  grow 
the  ear  of  corn?   (See  page  120.) 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FIFTH  GRADE          239 

II.  Plants  in  Nature's  Garden. 

1.  Flowers  that  grow  in  open,  sunny  places;  such  as 
asters,  clovers,  daisies,  goldenrods,  wild  sunflow- 
ers, toadflax,  thistles. 

Problems  — 

How  many  different  kinds  of  goldenrods  can  you 
find? 

In  what  ways  is  the  wild  aster  like  the  cultivated 
aster? 

How  is  the  toadflax  made  so  as  to  bring  about  in- 
sect pollination? 

How  can  we  tell  the  kinds  of  clovers  apart? 

2.  Plants  without  flowers. 

A.  Ferns  —  both  wild  and  cultivated. 
Problems  — 

How  do  the  various  ferns  differ  from  each  other? 

(See  page  108.) 
What  care  do  ferns  as  house  plants  require? 

3.  Shade  trees  of  the  locality;  such  as  maples,  elms, 
lindens,  catalpa,  box-elder,  hackberry,  honey  lo- 
cust, white  poplar. 

A.  Work  of  the  parts  of  a  tree;  root,  stem,  leaf. 

(See  page  132.) 
Problems  — 

Which  is  the  best  shade  tree  in  our  locality? 

Arrange  the  shade  trees  in  the  order  of  their  oc- 
currence on  the  streets  that  you  are  familiar 
with. 

What  care  do  shade  trees  require? 

How  can  we  tell  the  different  maples  apart? 

What  is  the  chief  character  by  which  each  tree 
may  be  named? 

What  work  is  done  by  the  root  of  a  maple  tree?  By 
the  stem?  By  the  leaf? 


240  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

4.  Calendar  of  leaf  coloring  of  trees,  shrubs,  and 
vines.   (See  page  92.) 

5.  Plants  that  move. 

A.  Sensitive  plant,  white  clover,  mallow,  sun- 
flower, geranium. 
Problems  — 
What  kind  of  movements  do  the  leaves  and  flowers 

of  some  plants  have? 
What  causes  these  movements? 

III.  Some  Animal  Friends  and  Foes. 

1.  Spiders;  orb  weaver,  grass  spider,  cobweb  spider; 
value,  web  spinning  habits. 

2.  Water  insects,  such  as  whirligig  beetle,  water 
strider,    water    boatman,    backswimmer,    water 
beetles,   nymph   of   dragon   fly;    caddis  worm; 
methods  of  moving  and  breathing. 

3.  Housefly,  relation  to  disease. 

4.  Crayfish,  habits,  value. 

5.  Compare  bird  life  now  with  that  in  spring. 

6.  Feeding  winter  birds. 
Problems  — 

How  is  the  web  of  an  orb  weaver  made?    (See 

page  80.) 

How  do  spiders'  webs  differ  from  each  other? 
Are  spiders  harmful  or  helpful? 
How  is  the  caddis  worm  adapted  for  living  in  the 

water? 
How  do  some  insects  live  on  the  surface  of  water? 

(See  page  77.) 
How  are  certain  insects  fitted  for  living  in  the 

water? 

What  harm  is  done  by  the  house  fly? 
What  can  be  done  to  get  rid  of  the  fly? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FIFTH  GRADE          241 

What  habits  of  the  crayfish  may  be  observed  from 
a  study  of  a  crayfish  kept  in  the  schoolroom? 

How  do  the  activities  of  birds  now  differ  from  their 
activities  last  spring? 

How  may  we  help  the  winter  birds?  (See  page  65.) 

IV.  Some  Plant  Foes. 

1.  Poisonous  plants,  such  as  poison  ivy,  Jimson  weed, 
pokeweed,  poisonous  mushrooms;  identification, 
nature  of  injury,  remedies. 
Problems  — 
How  may  we  know  the  poison  ivy  when  we  see  it? 

(See  page  138.) 

What  harm  does  each  plant  do? 
What  is  to  be  done  in  case  of  poisoning  with  any  of 
these  plants? 

V.  Aquarium  Studies. 

1.  Scavengers  —  tadpole  and  snail. 
Problems  — 

Of  what  use  are  tadpoles  and  snails  in  the  aqua- 
rium? 

How  does  the  snail's  way  of  living  in  the  water  dif- 
fer from  the  fish's  way? 

VI.  Fall  Sports. 

1 .  Giant  stride ;  other  illustrations  of  centrifugal  force 
such  as  cream  separator,  clothes-drier,  fly-wheel, 
sling. 

2.  Teeter;  other  applications  of  the  lever  such  as 
crowbar,    hammer,    pump   handle,    pantograph, 
scales  for  weighing.   (See  page  180.) 

3.  Value  of  exercise  to  the  body;  muscles  of  the  body. 
Problems  — 

What  principles  that  are  illustrated  in  the  giant 
stride  are  applied  elsewhere? 


242  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

How  do  the  various  applications  of  the  lever  differ 
from  that  found  in  the  teeter? 

In  what  way  is  the  exercise  on  these  pieces  of  ap- 
paratus good  for  the  muscles  of  the  body? 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 


September 
Wild  flowers 
Tender  annuals 
Start  calendar  of  leaf 
coloring 
House  plants 
House  fly 

October 
Ferns 
Spiders 
Bulbs  —  out  of  doors 
Compare  bird  life 
with  spring 
Trees 

November 
Water  insects 
Crayfish 
Vegetables 
Feeding  birds 
Bulbs  —  indoors 
Tadpole  and  snail 
Stride  and  teeter 

Winter 
I.  Plants  and  Animals  in  Winter. 

1.  Winter  decorations  —  flower  of  lily-of -the- valley 
or  crocus. 

Problem  — 

Which  do  you  think  adds  more  to  the  appearance 
of  the  room,  a  flower  like  the  lily-of-the-valley 
or  a  foliage  plant  like  the  fern? 

2.  Tree  studies. 

A.  Bark  of  trees. 

B.  Uses  of  trees  and  forests  while  standing. 

C.  Uses  of  the  wood  after  the  tree  is  cut  down. 
Problems  — 

How  do  the  barks  of  trees  differ? 

Of  what  use  are  trees  while  standing? 

What  uses  are  made  of  the  wood  after  the  tree  is 

cut  down.   (See 'page  96.) 
How  may  we  tell  the  trees  apart  in  winter? 

3.  Winter  birds;  such  as  blue  jay,  English  sparrow, 
nuthatch,  chickadee,  woodpecker;  identification, 
feeding. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FIFTH  GRADE          243 

Problems  — 

What  is  the  best  way  of  telling  the  winter  birds 

apart? 

How  can  we  help  them  in  winter?  (See  page  65.) 
4.  How  animals  spend  the  winter. 
Problem  — 

In  what  different  ways  do  wild  animals  spend  the 
winter? 

II.  Health  Studies. 

1.  Drinks. 

A.  Drinks  that  are  harmful  to  children;  tea, 
coffee,  alcoholic  drinks,  patent  medicines. 

B.  Drinks  that  are  good  for  children. 

a.  Milk;  its  sources,  uses,  methods  of 
keeping  sweet  and  clean,  products 
made  from  milk. 

6.  Water;  use  to  the  body,  how  it  becomes 
unfit  to  drink,  how  made  pure,  public 
drinking  cup  and  sanitary  fountain; 
method  by  which  rain  forms. 
Problems  — 
Why  are  patent  medicines  not  good  for  sick  people 

to  use? 
Why  should  not  children  use  tea,  coffee,  or  alcoholic 

drinks? 

What  makes  milk  such  a  good   drink  for  chil- 
dren? 

What  care  needs  to  be  taken  to  be  sure  that  our 
drinking  water  is  clean? 

2.  Foods. 

A.  What  children  eat  in  other  lands. 

B.  Comparison  of  food  of  animals  with  food  of 
man. 


244  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Problems  — 

How  does  the  food  that  children  in  other  coun- 
tries eat  differ  from  the  food  you  eat? 

How  does  the  food  of  animals  differ  from  that  of 
man? 

3.  Breathing.   (See  page  159.) 

A.  How  done,  need  of,  frequency,  lungs,  lung 
capacity,  breathing  through  mouth  and  nos- 
trils, artificial  breathing  in  case  of  apparent 
drowning  and  gas  suffocation. 

B.  Composition  of  air,  effect  on  air  of  breathing, 
amount  of  air  breathed. 

C.  Effect  on  breathing  of  tight  clothing,  and  of 
exercise. 

Problems  — 

What  takes  place  in  our  lungs  while  we  are  breath- 
ing? 

What  are  some  of  the  things  that  interfere  with 
proper  breathing? 

4.  Clothing. 

A.  Purposes,  dependence  on  season,  how  chil- 
dren in  other  lands  are  clothed. 

B.  Animal  coverings;  hair,  wool,  fur,  feathers, 
scales,  skin,  shell,  silk. 

C.  Ability  of  clothing  material  to  conduct  heat. 
Problems  — 

How  does  the  clothing  of  children  in  other  lands 

differ  from  your  clothing? 
What  health  factors  should  determine  the  kind  of 

clothing  we  wear? 

What    different  kinds  of    coverings  do  animals 
'      have? 

5.  Care  of  skin. 

A.  Bathing,  kinds  of  baths,  swimming. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FIFTH  GRADE          245 

Problems  — 

Of  what  value  are  the  different  kinds  of  baths? 
What  are  the  strokes  commonly  used  in  swim- 
ming? 

III.  Winter  Pleasures. 

1.  Outdoor  sports;  skating,  formation  of  ice;  floating 
of  ice;  value  to  body  of  outdoor  exercise. 

2.  Evening  entertainments.   (See  page  181.) 

A.  Stereopticon,  moving  pictures,  phonograph, 

talking  movies. 
Problems  — 

How  many  kinds  of  skates  are  there? 

How  does  ice  form? 

How  does  a  moving-picture  machine  differ  from  a 

stereopticon? 

How  does  the  phonograph  reproduce  sounds? 
What  advantages  have  the  talking  movies  over 
the  phonograph  or  moving  pictures  alone? 

IV.  Sky  Studies. 

1.  The  moon;  its  size,  distance,  motions,  relation  to 
earth. 

A.  Observations  on  its  phases,  changes  in  posi- 
tion in  sky;  and  changes  in  time  of  rising 
and  setting.   (See  page  188.) 
Problems  — 

What  effect  does  the  moon  have  on  man's  life? 
In  what  ways  is  the  moon  different  from  the 
sun? 

Spring 

I.  The  Awakening  Life  of  Spring. 
1.  Trees. 

A.  Leaf  calendar.   (See  page  92.) 


246  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

B.  Special  study  of  shade  trees  of   vicinity. 
Watch  development  of  twigs  kept  in  water 
indoors. 

C.  Flowers  of  maple  and  elm. 
Problems  — 

What  is  the  order  in  which  the  buds  of  our  shade 

trees  open? 
How  can  we  identify  our  shade  trees  before  the 

buds  open? 
What  is  there  in  the  bud  that  develops  into  leaf 

and  flower? 
How  do  the  flowers  of  the  elm  and  maple  differ 

from  other  flowers  that  you  know,  such  as  the 

hepatica. 

2.  Wild  flowers. 

A.  Calendar.   (See  page  100.) 

B.  Special  study  of  white  spring  flowers,  such 
as  blood  root,  dwarf  trillium,  Dutchman's 
breeches,  wild  strawberry,  tooth  wort. 

Problems  — 

How  does  the  flower  of  the  bloodroot  differ  from 

the  flower  of  Dutchman's  breeches? 
What  is  the  best  way  of  identifying  each  of  these 

flowers? 

How  are  these  adapted  to  insect  pollination? 
Which  do  you  like  the  better  of  any  two  of  these 

flowers? 

3.  Cultivated  flowers. 

A.  Study  of  spring  flowering  perennials  such  as 
columbine,    iris,    lily-of-the-valley,    peony, 
bleeding-heart. 
Problems  — 

Why  are  these  desirable  flowers  to  have  in  our 
garden? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  FIFTH  GRADE         247 

What  is  it  necessary  to  do  in  order  to  have  these 
flowers? 

II.  The  Returning  Life  of  Spring. 

1.  The  birds. 

A.  Special  study  of  birds  of  the  air;  such  as 
rough-winged  swallow,  bank  swallow,  mar- 
tin,  chimney  swift,    barn   swallow,   night 
hawk,  humming  bird. 

B.  Building    nesting-houses  for  bluebird  and 
wren. 

C.  Study  of  nesting  habits. 

a.  Nest,  location,  materials,  construction; 
eggs;  number,  size,  color,  incubation, 
young  birds;  care  given  by  parents, 
time  in  nest;  putting  out  nesting  ma- 
terial. 

D.  Formation  of  Audubon  Bird  Clubs,  meet- 
ings during  term. 

Problems  — 

In  what  ways  are  swallows  fitted  for  living  on  the 
wing? 

How  can  we  tell  the  different  swallows  apart? 

Of  what  use  are  the  swallows  to  us? 

What  makes  bird  houses  a  better  protection  to  the 
birds  than  their  natural  nesting  sites? 

How  can  we  get  some  bird  like  the  wren  or  blue- 
bird to  help  us  destroy  the  insects  in  our  garden? 

What  materials  do  birds'  nests  contain  that  we  can 
put  out  for  the  birds  to  use? 

Where  do  birds  build  their  nests? 

What  care  do  the  parent  birds  give  their  young? 

III.  The  New  Life  of  Spring. 

1.  Development  of  frog's  eggs. 


248  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Problem  — 

What  changes  take  place  during  the  development 
of  the  frog's  eggs? 

IV.   Gardening.    Main  topic:  tender  annual  flowers;  and 
vegetables  whose  leaves  are  eaten. 

1.  Schoolroom  gardening. 

A.  Early  in  the  season  plant  indoors  or  in  a  cold 
frame  a  few  seeds  from  each  of  the  lists  given 
below  so  that  the  seedlings  may  later  be 
transplanted  into  the  home  or  school  gardens. 

a.  Plant  seeds  of  some  of  the  tender  an- 
nuals; such  as  aster,  balsam,  cosmos, 
four-o'clock,  marigold,  portulaca, 
velvet  flower. 

6.  Plant  seeds  of  some  of  the  vegetables 
whose  leaves  are  eaten,  such  as  cab- 
bage, celery,  Swiss  chard,  cress,  endive, 
lettuce,  parsley. 
Problems— ^ 

How  may  we  have  early  flowers  and  vegetables  in 

our  gardens? 
How  should  seedlings  be  transplanted? 

B.  Work  of  roots  (To  be  answered  by  experi- 
ments.  (See  page  132.) 

a.  Absorption  of  water. 
6.  Root  hairs. 

c.  Direction  of  growth. 

d.  Food  storage  —  carrot  basket. 

2.  Home  gardens. 

A.  Distribute  order  envelopes  for  penny  packets 
of  seeds. 

B.  Encourage   children  to  plant  some  of  the 
seeds  mentioned  above  under  A.    Lessons 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SIXTH  GRADE 


249 


on  the  culture  of  tender  annual  flowers  and  of 
salad  plants.  Value  of  fresh  vegetables  for 
food. 

C.  Insects  of  the  gardens. 
Problems  — 

How  can  tender  annual  flowers  be  raised? 
How  can  salad  plants  be  raised? 
Why  do  vegetables  that  we  raise  in  our  own  gar- 
dens make  good  food? 
What  do  insects  do  in  the  garden?         ' 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 


March 
Give  out  seed  envelopes 
Twigs  of  trees 
Plant  seeds  indoors 
House  for  bluebird 
Nests 
How  plants  grow 
Work  of  plants 

April 
Organize  Audubon 
Bird  Club 
Lessons  on  home  garden 
Start  flower  calendar 
Early  flowers 
Martin 
House  for  wren 
Frog's  eggs 
Start  leaf  calendar 
Bank  swallow 
Flowers  of  maple  and  elm 

May 
Chimney  swift 
Barn  swallow 
Later  spring  flowers 
Night  hawk 
Humming  bird 
Cultivated  flowers 
Nesting  habits 
Insects  of  garden 

SIXTH  GRADE 

Autumn 
I.  Garden  studies. 

1.  Report  on  summer  experiences  in  the  garden. 

2.  Cultivated  flowers  —  vines. 

A.  Annual  vines  such  as  balloon  vine,  canary 
bird  flower,  hyacinth  bean,  cypress  vine, 
gourd,  Japanese  hop,  moon  flower,  morning- 
glory,  sweet  pea. 

B.  Perennial  vines  such  as  bittersweet,  clema- 
tis, Engelmann's  ivy,  Boston  ivy,  trumpet 


250  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

honeysuckle,  everlasting  pea,  wistaria,  wood- 
bine. 
Problems  — 

Which  are  better  vines  to  grow  in  our  yards,  an- 
nuals or  perennials? 
What  support  is  needed  for  each  kind  of  vine? 

(See  page  104.) 

What  uses  are  made  of  vines? 
Which  of  these  vines  is  the  prettiest  in  the  fall 

when  the  leaves  are  coloring? 
Which  is  the  more  desirable  vine  to  grow,  the 
morning  glory  or  canary  bird  flower? 
C.  Flowers  from  spring  bulbs;  tuberose,  gladio- 
lus, dahlia. 
Problem  — 

Which  flower  is  better  for  decorating  a  yard, 
gladiolus  or  dahlia? 

3.  Planting  bulbs. 

A.  For  outdoor  blooming.  Plant  in  school  gar- 
den and  encourage  children  to  plant  at  home. 

a.  Hyacinths     (single,     double,     grape, 
feathered,  wood,  Spanish). 

B.  For  indoor  blooming.   (See  page  126.) 

a.  Roman  hyacinth. 
Problems  — 

What  is  the  best  way  to  plant  fall  bulbs? 

How  may  we  have  flowers  in  our  room  next  winter? 

4.  Vine  crops;  such  as  cucumber,  melons,  summer 
and  winter  squash,  pumpkin,  pollination  of  their 
blossoms;  grapevine. 

Problems  — 

How  do  the  flowers  of  the  pumpkin  differ  from  each 

other? 
Which  of  these  fruits  makes  the  best  food? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SIXTH  GRADE          251 

How  may  some  of  these  be  stored  for  winter  use? 
In  what  respects  are  these  fruits  alike  in  structure? 

5.  Some  common  weeds  of  the  garden;  such  as  mal- 
low, pigweed,  lamb's  quarters,  purslane,  quack- 
grass.    Their   identification  and   control.     (See 
page  135.) 

Problems  — 

What  are  the  most  common  weeds  that  grow  in  the 

garden? 

How  may  they  be  identified? 
How  may  each  of  these  weeds  be  controlled? 

6.  Fruit  trees  and  their  fruits. 

A.  Apple,  plum   (both  wild  and  cultivated), 
cherry   (both  wild  and  cultivated),   pear, 
peach. 
Problems  — 

How  many  different  kinds  of  apples  are  there  that 

grow  around  here? 
How  do  the  cultivated  plum  and  cherry  differ  from 

the  wild? 
What  harm  is  done  to  apple  trees  and  apples  by 

insects? 

How  may  these  insects  be  controlled? 
How  do  varieties  of  apples  differ  from  each  other? 

II.  Plants  in  Nature's  Garden. 

1.  Vines;  such  as  bittersweet,  climbing  buckwheat, 
clematis,  wild  cucumber,  wild  morning  glory,  wild 
grape,  poison  ivy,  wild  peanut,  moonseed,  smilax, 
woodbine. 

A.  Calendar  of  coloring  and  fall  of  leaves  of 
vines,  both  wild  and  cultivated.  (See  page 
92.) 

Problems  — 
How  may  the  wild  vines  be  told  apart? 


252  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Which  of  these  vines  have  features  which  make 
them  suitable  for  planting  in  the  home  grounds? 
How  do  vines  climb?  (See  page  104.) 

2.  Flowerless  plants. 

A.  Mosses,  lichens,  and  horsetail. 
Problems  — 

How  do  mosses  differ  from  lichens? 

3.  Tree  fruits  still  hanging  on  trees;  such  as  ash,  ca- 
talpa,  cones  of  evergreens,  red  cedar,  coffee  tree, 
hornbean,  ironwood,  box-elder,    linden,    locust, 
sugar  maple.  Dispersal  of  tree  fruits. 

Problems  — 

What  trees  may  be  identified  by  means  of  the. fruit 

hanging  on  them? 
How  are  these  tree  fruits  adapted  for  dispersal? 

4.  Fruits  that  serve  as  food  for  the  fall  and  winter 
birds;  such  as  mountain  ash,  barberry,  bitter- 
sweet, burning  bush,  hackberry,  dogwood,  smilax, 
snowberry,  sumac,  viburnum;  identification  of 
these  shrubs  from  fruit  and  leaf. 

Problems  — 

What  kind  of  fruits  do  shrubs  bear  that  birds  like 

to  eat? 
How  may  these  shrubs  be  identified? 

III.  Some  Friends  and  Foes  of  the  Garden. 

1.  Insect  friends  and  foes;  such  as  potato  beetle, 
white  grub,  cutworm,  cabbage  worm,  corn  ear 
worm,  bees,  lady  beetles;  harm  or  good  done; 
remedies  for  injurious  kinds. 
Problems  — 

What  harm  have  insects  done  to  the  garden  during 

the  past  summer? 
In  what  ways  have  insects  been  helpful? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SIXTH  GRADE          253 

2.  Bird  friends;  fall  migration  of  birds;  nest  census 
(after  fall  of  leaves). 

Problems  — 

How  do  the  activities  of  birds  now  differ  from  their 

activities  last  spring? 
Which  are  among  the  first  birds  to  leave,  and 

which  stay  the  longest? 
How  many  birds'  nests  can  we  find  in  the  trees 

growing  within  two  blocks  of  the  schoolhouse? 

3.  Toad. 
Problem  — 

What  does  the  toad  do  for  us? 

IV.  Aquarium  Studies. 
1.  Water  plants. 
Problem  — 

How  do  plants  that  live  in  the  water  differ  from 
those  that  live  on  land? 

V.  Fall  Sports. 

1.  Bicycling,  bicycle  pump,  compressed  air. 
Problems  — 

Which  is  the  better  bicycle,  the  kind  with  or  with- 
out chains? 

What  is  the  difference  in  the  different  makes  of 
bicycles? 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 

September  October  November 

Flowers  of  spring  bulbs  Weeds  Fruit  trees 

Flowers  of  vine  crops  Vine  crops  Plant  bulb  indoors 

Annual  cultivated  vines  Garden  insects  Tree  fruits 

Perennial  cultivated  vines  Mosses  and  lichens  Nest  census 

Wild  vines  Plant  bulbs  out  of  doors  Fruits  for  birds 

Start  vine  calendar  Fall  migration  of  birds  Bicycling 

Toad  Water  plants 


254  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Winter 

I.  Plants  and  Animals  in  Winter. 

1.  Winter  decorations  —  flower  of  Roman  hyacinth 
from  bulb  planted  in  fall. 

2.  Tree  studies. 

A.  Buds  of  trees. 

B.  Enemies  of  trees  and  forests. 
Problems  — 

What  makes  the  hyacinth  a  desirable  flower  to 

have  in  the  room? 
What  trees  can  we  name  through  the  difference  in 

their  buds? 
What  are  the  chief  enemies  of  trees? 

3.  How  plants  spend  the  winter. 

4.  Winter  birds. 

A.  Value  of  birds. 

B.  Helping  our  bird  friends  by  feeding  them. 
Problems  — 

What  do  birds  do  for  us? 

How  can  we  help  the  winter  birds?    (See  page  65.) 

II.  Health  Studies;  keeping  the  body  well  and  strong. 
1.  Foods. 

A.  Cooking,  needs,  ways. 

B.  Preservation  of  foods;  in  ice  chest,  cellar,  by 
canning,  drying,  salting. 

C.  Difference  in  food  according  to  seasons. 

D.  Compare  food  of  plants  with  food  of  ani- 
mals. 

E.  Digestion  of  foods,  solubility,  use  by  body. 
Problems  — 

How  does  cooking  make  foods  better? 

In  what  ways  may  foods  be  kept  from  spoiling? 

How  does  our  food  change  from  season  to  season? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SIXTH  GRADE          255 

How  does  the  way  in  which  plants  get  their  food 
differ  from  the  way  in  which  animals  get  their 
food? 

What  happens  to  our  food  after  it  is  swallowed? 

2.  Heating  and  ventilation;  how  to  get  a  supply  of 
warm,  fresh  air.   (See  pages  159  and  162). 

A.  Ways   of  heating:  fireplace,  stove,  hot-air 
furnace,  hot  water,  steam. 

B.  Use  of  thermometer. 

C.  Composition  of  air. 

D.  Things  that  spoil  pure  air:  tobacco  smoke, 
lamps,  gas  jets  and  ranges,  people,  dust, 
bad  odors  from  unclean  objects,  such  as 
clothing,  bodies,  teeth,  decaying  food. 

E.  Effect  of  impure  air  on  people. 

F.  How  to  get  pure  air  in  the  sleeping-room, 
the  home,  and  the  schoolroom. 

G.  How  the  air  in  the  room  moves;  drafts. 
H.  Amount  of  air  needed. 

Problems  — 

Which  is  the  best  method  of  heating  our  homes? 

Which  system  of  heating  gives  the  best  ventila- 
tion? 

What  are  some  of  the  things  that  spoil  pure 
air? 

How  is  our  schoolroom  ventilated? 

How  is  your  home  ventilated? 

How  may  we  get  fresh  air  in  our  sleeping-room? 

How  does  the  thermometer  enable  us  to  tell  the 
temperature  of  our  rooms? 

3.  Clothing;  protecting  the  body. 

A.  Different  kinds  of  materials  used,  sources, 
method  of  making  clothing  from  each;  shoes 
and  rubbers. 


256  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Problems  — 

What  kind  of  material  makes  the  best  clothing? 

Through  what  changes  does  each  kind  pass  from 
its  source  till  it  is  made  into  clothing? 

What  points  that  effect  health  should  be  consid- 
ered when  buying  shoes? 

4.  Avoiding  infectious  diseases. 

A.  Causes,  relation  of  bacteria  to  disease,  ac- 
tivities of  bacteria. 

B.  Routes  of  transfer  to  well  persons;  food, 
water,  flies,  milk,  contact   (for  nose  and 
mouth  discharge  as  in  tuberculosis,  through 
sputum,  mouth-spray  and  hands). 

C.  Prevention:  clean  hands,  care  in  depositing 
sputum,  avoid  throwing  mouth-spray  into 
people's  faces,  care  of  patients. 

D.  Special  study  of  a  few  diseases,  such  as 
tuberculosis,     typhoid    fever,     diphtheria, 
smallpox. 

Problems  — 

What  part  do  bacteria  play  in  infectious  diseases? 
How  may  these  bacteria  be  carried  from  sick  to 

well  persons? 
What  can  we  do  to  prevent  our  catching  these 

diseases? 
What  can  we  do  to  prevent   other  people  from 

catching  diseases  from  us  when  we  are  sick? 

5.  The  blood  system;  the  errand  boy  of  the  body. 

A.  Uses  of  blood,  heart,  and  blood  vessels? 
Problems  — 

What  does  the  blood  system  do  for  the  body? 
What  to  do  in  case  of  accidents. 

A.  Cuts,  burns,  drowning,  suffocation,  poison- 
ing. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SIXTH  GRADE          257 

Problems  — 

What  may  be  done  in  case  of  poisoning? 

In  case  of  apparent  drowning  how  may  respiration 
be  restored? 

In  case  of  cuts  what  may  be  done  to  stop  bleed- 
ing? 

What  may  be  done  to  care  for  burns? 

III.  Christmas  Studies. 

1.  Christmas  trees  and  other  evergreens. 
Problems  — 

How  can  we  identify  the  evergreens  that  grow 

around  here? 
What  use  is  made  of  the  wood  of  evergreen  trees? 

IV.  Winter  Sports. 

1.  Roller  skating;  going  around  curves,  other  illus- 
trations of  centrifugal  force. 
Problems  — 

How  does  roller  skating  differ  from  ice  skating? 
What  other  illustrations  of  centrifugal  force  can 
you  think  of? 

V.  Sky  Studies. 

1.  The  stars  and  planets;  distances,  size,  relation  to 
earth. 

2.  Observations  on  constellations,  difference  between 
winter  and  summer  constellations,  constellations 
visible  at  all  seasons,  how  to  find  the  north  star. 
(See  page  189). 

Problems  — 

How  are  stars  different  from  planets? 

Which  has  the  greatest  effect  on  man,  the  moon, 

sun,  planets,  or  stars? 
Which  the  least  effect? 


258  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

VI.  Some  Simple    Machines  that    make    Man's  Work 
Easier.   (See  page  180.) 

1.  Pulley,  screw,  wedge:  common  applications  of 

each;  compare  lever  and  pulley;  inclined  plane 

and  wedge. 
Problems  — 

How  does  each  of  these  machines  work  so  as  to 
enable  man  to  lift  heavy  loads? 

How  many  applications  of  each  can  you  think  of? 

VII.  How  Glass  helps  People. 

1.  In  reading  —  spectacles. 

2.  In  seeing  afar  off  —  opera  and  field-glasses. 

3.  In  taking  pictures  —  camera;  blue  prints;  de- 
veloping, printing.   (See  page  178.) 

Problems  — 

How  do  glasses  help  one  to  see  better? 

How  do  opera  glasses  seem  to  bring  objects 

nearer? 

In  what  ways  is  the  camera  like  the  human  eye? 
How  can  we  make  blue  prints  of  leaves,  or  from 

some  negative? 

How  many  different  kinds  of  cameras  are  there? 
How  are  negatives  developed? 
What  are  the  different  ways  of  printing? 

VIH.  Helps  in  being  Prompt. 

1.  Watches  and  clocks. 

2.  School  electric  bells. 

3.  Old  methods  of  telling  time;  sundial,  hour-glass. 
Problems  — 

We  will  take  an  old  alarm  clock  apart  to  see  if 
we  can  understand  how  it  keeps  time. 

How  are  our  electric  bells  arranged  so  as  to  give 
the  signals  for  the  periods? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SIXTH  GRADE          259 

We  will  make  an  hour-glass  and  see  if  we  can  keep 
account  of  time  by  it.   (See  page  179.) 

Spring 

I.  The  Awakening  Life  of  Spring. 
1.  Trees  and  shrubs. 

A.  Flower  calendar  of  trees.    Special  study  of 
tree  flowers  of  common  shade  trees  and 
fruit  trees. 

B.  Special  study  of  fruit  trees  and  small  fruits, 
such  as  apple,  plum,  cherry,  peach,  pear, 
strawberry,  raspberry,  blackberry,  currant; 
pollination  of  fruit  blossoms;  wind  pollina- 
tions; grapes. 

C.  Watch  development  of  twigs  of  fruit  trees 
kept  indoors  in  water. 

D.  Insect  enemies  of  fruits — the  codling  moth. 

E.  Methods  of  propagating  fruits. 
Problems  — 

How  do  the  flowers  of  our  shade  trees  differ  from 

the  flowers  of  fruit  trees? 
In  what  ways  is  the  apple  blossom  adapted  to 

bring  about  insect  pollination?    (See  page  103.) 
In  what  ways  are  the  flowers  of  the  plum  and 

cherry  alike? 
How  may  we  raise   strawberries  in  our  home 

gardens? 
In  how  many  ways  do  we  use  strawberries  as 

food? 

What  are  the  methods  of  getting  new  apple  trees? 
What  of  getting  new  plants  of  grapes,  currants, 

and  other  fruits? 
In  what  ways  do  wind-pollinated  flowers  differ 

from  insect-pollinated  flowers? 


260  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

2.  Cultivated  shrubs. 

A.  Study  of  flowers  of  spring  blooming  shrubs, 
such  as  lilac,  Juneberry,  golden  bell,  flow- 
ering   almond,    snowball,    weigela,     bridal 
wreath. 
Problems  — 

What  makes  each  of  these  an  attractive  shrub  to 

grow  in  our  yards? 
How  can  we  tell  them  apart? 

II.  The  Returning  Life  of  Spring. 
1.  Birds. 

A.  Special  study  of  birds  of  the  marsh,  such  as 
red-winged  blackbird,  kingfisher,  bobolink, 
marsh  wren;  and  of  birds  of  meadows  and 
fields,  such  as  bobwhite,  horned  lark,  gold- 
finch,  meadowlark,   song   sparrow,   vesper 
sparrow,  field  sparrow,  flicker,  cowbird,  in- 
digo bunting. 

B.  Building  open  nesting-boxes  for  the  robin 
and  phcebe. 

C.  Migration;  times;  groups  of  birds  (perma- 
nent, summer,  and  winter  residents,  tran- 
sient visitants);  routes,  distances,  causes; 
calendar  of  spring  migration. 

D.  Bird  enemies;  bird  protection.    Special  em- 
phasis on  the  work  of  the  Audubon  Societies. 

E.  Formation  of  Audubon  Bird  Club;  meetings 
during  term. 

Problems  — 

What  birds  prefer  to  live  near  wet  places? 

Of  what  use  are  the  birds  of  the  meadows  and 

fields  to  us? 
Which  is  the  most  valuable  of  these  birds? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SIXTH  GRADE          261 

What  habits  of  these  birds  are  specially  interest- 
ing to  us? 

What  kind  of  a  nesting-box  can  we  make  so  as 
to  get  a  pair  of  robins  or  phoebes  to  nest  in 
it? 

How  are  birds  grouped  according  to  the  time  that 
they  stay  with  us? 

Let  us  try  to  follow  on  a  map  the  travels  of  a  bob- 
olink for  a  year. 

What  are  the  chief  enemies  of  birds? 

What  is  the  Audubon  Society  doing  to  protect 
birds?  (See  page  66.) 

What  can  we  in  our  Audubon  Club  do  to  protect 
birds? 

What  are  our  State  and  National  Governments 
doing  to  protect  birds?  (See  page  67.) 

III.  Gardening.  Main  topic;  vines  and  vine  crops. 
1.  Schoolroom  gardening. 

A.  Early  in  the  spring  plant  indoors  or  in  a 
hotbed  a  few  seeds  from  the  lists  given  below 
so  that  the  seedlings  may  later  be  trans- 
planted to  the  home  or  school  gardens. 

a.  Plant  seeds  of  some  of  the  annual  vines 
such  as  balloon  vine,  hyacinth  bean, 
canary    bird    flower,    cypress    vine, 
gourds,   Japanese  hop,   moon  flower 
climbing  nasturtium,   morning  glory  » 
sweet  peas. 

b.  Plant  some  seeds  of  the  vine  crops  such 
as  melons,  pumpkin,  cucumber,  win- 
ter and  summer  squash. 

c.  Plant  summer  flowering  bulbs  such  as 
tuberose,  gladiolus,  dahlia. 


262  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

B.  Work  of  leaf.   (See  page  134.) 

a.  Transpiration. 

b.  Light  and  starch-making. 

c.  Leaf  exposure  to  sunlight. 

d.  Sleep  movement  of  leaves. 

e.  Effect  of  light  on  growth  of  stem  and 
leaves. 

Problems  — 

How  may  we  have  early  flowers  and  vegetables  in 

our  gardens? 
What  is  the  difference  between  a  cold  frame  and 

hotbed? 
What  effect  do  light,  water,  and  gravity  have  on 

the  direction  in  which  the  parts  of  a  plant  grow? 

2.  Home  gardens. 

A.  Distribute  order  envelopes  for  penny  pack- 
ets of  seeds. 

B.  Encourage  the  children  to  plant  some  seeds 
from  the  lists  given  above  under  A,  and  also 
bulbs. 

C.  Lessons  on  the  culture  of  vines  and  vine 
crops.    Value  to  body  of  the  outdoor  exer- 
cise in  gardening.  Thinning  plants. 

Problems  — 

What  are  some  of  the  best  vines  to  plant? 

How  can  these  vines  be  raised? 

In  what  ways  is  the  care  that  the  different  vines 

crops  require  the  same? 

How  may  we  raise  some  extra  early  cucumbers? 
We  will  each  make  a  plan  on  paper  of  our  garden 

just  as  we  would  like  to  plant  it. 

3.  Garden  calendar;  reports  arranged  in  three  col- 
umns as  follows:  garden  activity  observed,  date, 
name  of  child  first  reporting. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SEVENTH  GRADE       263 

IV.   Spring  Sports. 

1.  Outdoor   toys,   such   as   kite,   windmill,   water- 
wheel  —  types,    undershot,    overshot,    turbine; 
natural  and  artificial  waterfalls. 
Problems  — 

In  what  ways  is  an  aeroplane  like  a  kite? 

Which  are  more  useful,  windmills  or  water-wheels? 

How  does  a  windmill  differ  from  a  water-wheel  in 

the  way  it  is  made? 

What  is  the  best  way  to  make  toy  water-wheels 
and  windmills? 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 


March 
Distribute  seed  enve- 
lopes 
Twigs  of  trees 
Plant  seeds  indoors 
Plant  activities 
Goldfinch 
Bobwhite 
Spring  sports 
Bird  enemies 
Bird  protection 
Form  Audubon  Bird  Club 
Nesting-boxes  for  robin 

April                                 May 
Start  tree  flower  cal-         Indigo  bunting 
endar                               Flowers  of  fruit  trees 
Red-winged  blackbird       Propagation  of  fruits 
Flowers  of  shade  trees       Bobolink 
Lessons  on  home  garden   Marsh  wren 
Start  garden  calendar       Codling  moth 
Song,    vesper,    field         Cultivated  shrubs 
sparrows 
Raising  strawberries 
Kingfisher,  cowbird, 
flicker 
Bird  migration 

SEVENTH  GRADE 

Central  thought  for  the  grade:  the  hygiene  and  science  of  the  home 

Autumn 
I.  Making  the  Home  Yard  attractive. 

1.  Shrubs;  cultivated,  and  wild  shrubs  adapted  for 
planting  in  the  yard. 

2.  Vines;  cultivated,   and  wild  vines  adapted  for 
planting  in  the  yard. 

3.  Flower  garden. 

A.  Perennials;  identification  of  common  kinds. 


264  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

B.  Annuals;  identification  of   new  kinds  not 
already  known. 

C.  Plant  bulbs. 

(In  the  fall,  study  shrubs,  vines,  and  flowers  for 
identification   and    to    learn   their   decorative 
value.) 
Problems  — 

How  may  our  shrubs,  vines,  and  flowers  be  iden- 
tified? 

What  decorative  value  has  each  of  these  for  grow- 
ing in  the  home  yard? 

Which  make   better    garden  flowers,  annuals  or 
perennials? 

What  wild  vines  and  shrubs  are  adapted  for  plant- 
ing in  the  home  yard? 

Which  are  the  best  fall  garden  flowers? 

What  bulbs  are  best  adapted  to  this  climate? 

How  should  they  be  planted? 

II.  Making  the  Yard  useful. 

1.  The  vegetable  garden. 

A.  Canning  and  storing  vegetables. 

B.  Garden  insects. 

C.  Garden  weeds. 

2.  The  fruit  garden. 

A.  Canning  fruits. 
Problems  — 

What  are  the  best  methods  of  storing  vegetables 

for  the  winter?   (See  page  122.) 
How  does  the  method  used  in  canning  vegetables 

differ  from  that  used  for  fruits? 
How  may  fruits  be  canned?   (See  page  122.) 
What  harm  are  insects  doing  to  the  garden? 
What  are  the  most  troublesome  weeds  found  in 

the  garden? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SEVENTH  GRADE       265 
i 

III.  Growing  Plants  Indoors. 

1.  House  plants;  kinds,  care,  raising  from  cuttings. 

(See  page  126.) 
Problems  — 

What  plants  are  best  adapted  for  growing  in  the 

house? 
What  care  do  these  plants  require? 

IV.  Insect  Pests  of  the  Household. 

1.  Ants,  cockroaches,  carpet  beetle,  clothes  moth. 
Problems  — 

What  harm  does  each  of  these  pests  do? 

How  may  each  be  controlled? 

V.  Heating  the  Home.   (See  pages  162-164.) 

1.  Fireplace. 

2.  Stove. 

3.  Hot-air  furnace. 

4.  Steam. 

5.  Hot  water. 

6.  Fuels  used;  chemistry  of  burning. 

7.  Causes  and  effects  of  heat. 

VI.   Ventilating  the  Home.   (See  pages  159-162.) 

1.  Means  for  each  of  the  above  methods  of  heat- 
ing. 
Problems  — 

What  are  the  essential  differences  between  the  hot 

air,  hot  water,  and  steam  systems  of  heating? 
From  the  standpoint  of  heating  alone  which  is  the 

best  system? 
From  the  standpoint  of  ventilation  which  is  the 

best  system? 

How  can  the  advantages  of  the  various  systems 
from  the  standpoints  of  both  heating  and  ven- 
tilation be  combined  in  one  system? 


266  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

If  the  home  is  heated  by  stoves,  how  may  ventila- 
tion be  secured?  In  what  ways  is  the  burning  of 
fuel  in  the  furnace  similar  to  the  burning  of  food 
in  our  bodies? 

What  effects  of  heat  are  illustrated  in  these  various 
methods  of  heating?  (See  page  163.) 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 

September  October  November 

Flowers  Canning  fruits  and  Heating  the  home 

Shrubs  vegetables  Ventilating  the  home 

Vines  Storing  vegetables 

Insects 
House  plants 

Winter 

I.  Lighting  the  Home.  (See  pages  170-171.) 

1.  Kerosene;  capillarity  in  wick. 

2.  Gas;  relation  of  heat  and  light. 

3.  Electricity. 

4.  Protection  from  fire;  fire  extinguisher. 
Problems  — 

What  principles  are  involved  in  the  working  of 

the  kerosene  lamp? 

What  advantages  has  gas  over  kerosene? 
What  advantages  has  electricity  over  both   gas 

and  kerosene? 
How  do  fire  extinguishers  work? 

II.  The  Home  Water  Supply. 

1.  Springs;  health  considerations. 

2.  Wells;  types  —  dug,  driven,  bored,  drilled. 

3.  Cisterns;  soft  and  hard  water.   (See  page  183.) 

4.  Pumps;  air  pressure,  the  siphon.   (See  page  173.) 

5.  Hot- water  tanks. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SEVENTH  GRADE        267 

6.  Pneumatic  water  system;  tank,  pump,  engine, 

windmill. 

7.  City  water  supply;  source;  pressure. 

8.  Ice ;  source,  purity,  methods  of  using;  the  ice  chest; 

freezing  ice  cream.  (See  page  173.) 
Problems  — 

What  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  water  of 
wells  and  springs  clean? 

What  are  the  differences  between  hard  and  soft 
water? 

How  is  the  lift  pump  constructed? 

How  may  the  country  home  have  a  supply  of  run- 
ning water? 

How  is  our  city  supplied  with  water? 

What  considerations  of  health  should  be  taken  into 
account  in  the  use  of  ice? 

III.  The  Food  Supply. 

1.  Need  of  food. 

2.  Combinations  of  foods  needed. 

3.  Economy  of  food  selection. 

4.  Preservation  and  protection  of  foods. 

5.  Cooking  foods. 

A.  Reasons  for  cooking. 

B.  Means  of  cooking;  stove,  gas,  electricity, 
fireless  cooker. 

C.  Chemistry  of  cooking.  (See  page  164.) 

a.  Experiments  to  show  effects  of  heat  on 
proteins,  fats,  and  starches;  tests  for 
proteins,  fats,  starches,  and  miner- 
als; study  of  chief  elements  found  in 
foods,  —  N.O.C.P.S.H.;  tests  for  acids 
and  bases;  action  of  yeast  and  baking 
powder. 


268  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Problems  — 

Why  does  the  body  need  foods? 

How  may  one  know  what  combinations  of  foods  to 
select? 

To  what  extent  may  economy  be  taken  into  ac- 
count without  injury  to  health? 

What  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  foods  sweet  and 
clean? 

Which  is  the  best  means  of  cooking,  by  the  stove, 
the  gas  range  or  electricity? 

How  is  the  fireless  cooker  constructed? 

IV.   Entertainment  in  the  home:  musical  instruments. 

1.  Phonograph. 

2.  Piano. 

3.  Violin,  guitar,  and  other  stringed  instruments. 

4.  Causes   of   sound;   physical    cause   of    musical 

sounds. 
Problems  — 

How  is  the  phonograph  constructed? 

What  are  the  principles  involved  in  the  making 
and  using  of  records? 

In  the  piano,  violin,  and  other  stringed  instru- 
ments how  is  the  pitch  controlled?  (See  page  181 .) 

What  makes  the  difference  in  the  quality  of  the 
tones  of  these  stringed  instruments? 

V.  The  Electric  Doorbell;  constructions,  batteries. 
Problem  — 

How  does  the  electric  bell  work? 

Spring 

I.  Making  the  Yard  attractive. 

1.  Shrubs  and  vines;  selection  of  kinds;  kinds  to  at- 
tract birds;  arrangement;  method  of  planting. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SEVENTH  GRADE       269 

2.  Flower  garden;  location;  planning;  selection    of 
flowers  for  harmony  of  colors;  physical  explana- 
tion of  color,  the  spectrum  and  rainbow;  prepara- 
tion of  soil;  planting  seeds;  subsequent  care. 

A.  Annuals;  plant  seeds. 

B.  Perennials.    Plant  seeds  or  set  out  roots. 

C.  Bulbs  —  study  flowers. 

(While  in  the  fall  the  chief  thought  was 
the  study  of  the  plants  themselves,  in  the 
spring  the  chief  thought  is  the  planting 
of  seeds  and  plants.) 

3.  Wild-flower  garden. 
Problems  — 

What  shrubs  and  vines  are  best  adapted  to  this 
climate? 

How  should  shrubs  be  arranged  to  secure  the  most 
artistic  effects? 

What  points  should  be  taken  into  account  in  plan- 
ning a  flower  garden? 

What  is  the  physical  explanation  of  the  difference 
in  color  of  flowers? 

How  do  annuals  and  perennials  differ  in  the  care 
needed  to  raise  them? 

What  decorative  value  have  the  flowers  of  the 
bulbous  plants? 

What  makes  the  tulip  a  desirable  garden  flower? 

II.  Making  the  Yard  useful. 

1.  The  vegetable  garden.    Financial  returns;  plan, 
selection  of  varieties,  preparation  of  soils,  tools, 
hotbed  and  cold  frame,  planting;  care. 
Problems  — 

What  financial  returns  may  be  expected  from  a 
small  vegetable  garden? 


270  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

What  considerations  that  apply  to  the   planting 

and  care  of  the  flower  garden  apply  also  to  the 

vegetable  garden? 
To  what  extent  is  the  consideration  of  varieties 

important? 

What  advantages  has  the  wheel-hoe? 
How  may  early  vegetables  be  raised? 
What  is  the  difference  between  the  hotbed  and 

cold  frame? 

2.  The  fruit  garden.  Classification  of  fruits,  propa- 
gation, comparison  with  vegetable  garden; 
dwarf  fruits. 

A.  Strawberries;  varieties,  fall  bearing,  methods 
of  planting,  care  the  first,  second,  and  third 
seasons;  financial  returns. 

B.  Grapes;  raspberries  and  other  bush  fruits. 

C.  WTork  of  the  stem  of  fruit  plants. 

a.  Passage  of  liquid  up  stem.    (See  page 

133.) 

6.  Passage  of  liquid  down  stem. 
c.  Direction  of  growth. 
Problems — 

Which  is  the  best  method  of  setting  out  straw- 
berries? 
How  may  strawberries  be  obtained  in  the  fall  of 

the  same  year  the  plants  are  set? 
How  does  the  care  of  the  strawberry  for  the  firs*, 
season  differ  from  the  care  the  second  and  third 
seasons? 
How  does  the  method  of  raising  raspberries  differ 

from  the  method  of  raising  strawberries? 
How  do  fruit  growers  get  new  plants  of  straw- 
berries, raspberries,  and  currants? 
How  do  dwarf  fruits  differ  from  the  ordinary  kinds  ? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SEVENTH  GRADE       271 

3.  Poultry-keeping. 

A.  Financial  returns;  varieties,  housing,  feed- 
ing, hatching  eggs,  rearing  chicks. 
Problems  — 

What  are  the  interesting  things  about  poultry- 
keeping? 

What  conditions  must  a  good  house  meet? 
How  should  poultry  be  fed? 

Which  is  the  better  method  of  hatching  eggs,  by 
incubator  or  hen? 

4.  Bee-keeping. 

A.  Financial  returns;  kinds  of  bees,  life  of  the 

hive,  swarming,  wintering. 
Problems  — 

What  advantage  does  bee-keeping  have  over  poul- 
try-keeping? 

What  disadvantages? 

What  care  should  be  given  bees  during  the  swarm- 
ing season? 

How  should  bees  be  wintered  in  this  climate? 

Which  offers  better  opportunities  for  financial  re- 
turns, bee-keeping  or  poultry-keeping? 

III.  Enemies  of  the  Garden. 

1.  Insects;  such  as  cutworm,  cucumber  beetle,  potato 

beetle,  squash  bug,  corn-ear  worm,  white  grub. 
Problems  — 

What  harm  is  done  by  each  of  these  insects? 

What  is  the  remedy  for  each? 

Through  what  changes  does  the  potato  beetle  pass 
in  its  growth? 

IV.  Friends  of  the  Garden. 

1.  Birds. 

A.  Birds  of  the  garden  and  orchard,  such  as 
chickadee,     cuckoo,     kingbird,     nuthatch, 


272  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

phoebe,  wood  thrush,  woodpeckers,  gros- 
beak, robin,  wren,  bluebird,  Baltimore 
oriole. 

B.  Attracting  bird  friends  to  the  yard  and  gar- 
den by  providing  nesting-boxes,  fountains, 
and  planting  shrubs  to  furnish  fruit. 

C.  Bird  songs:  how  made  (syrinx) ;  time  of  day 
and  season  given;  differences;  reproduction 
on  musical  scale. 

D.  Plumage  of  birds;  moulting;  differences  in 
color  according  to  age,  sex,  and  season. 

Problems  — 

Which  is  greater,  the  good  or  harm  that  the  robin 
does? 

Why  is  it  desirable  to  have  birds  around  the  yard 
and  garden? 

How  may  each  of  these  birds  be  identified? 

Which  is  the  most  interesting  bird? 

In  what  ways  is  the  wren  (or  any  other  bird) 
useful? 

What  may  be  done  to  increase  the  number  of  birds 
around  our  homes? 

Which  birds  have  the  most  musical  songs? 

How  can  we  identify  birds  from  their  songs? 

Through  what  changes  in  plumage  does  a  rose- 
breasted  grosbeak  pass  from  the  time  it  is  first 
hatched  till  it  is  two  years  old? 

2.  The  toad. 
Problems  — 

Of  what  use  is  the  toad  in  the  garden? 
What  may  be  done  to  increase  the  number  in  our 
gardens? 

3.  Insects;  such  as  lady  beetle,  ground  beetle,  aphis 
lion,  dragon  fly,  ichneumon  fly,  bees,  tiger  beetle. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  SEVENTH  GRADE       273 

Problems  — 

In  what  ways  is  the  lady  beetle  beneficial? 

Which  do  you  consider  the  most  helpful? 

How  are  dragon  flies  and  damsel  flies  beneficial? 

V.  Soils  of  the  Garden. 

1.  Kinds,  composition,  origin,  water  capacity,  cap- 
illarity, fertilizing,  cultivation,  effect  of  earth- 
worms on  soil. 

Problems  (to  be  answered  by  experiments)  — 
What  is  the  value  of  cultivating  the  garden  be- 
sides killing  the  weeds? 
How  do  roots  get  water  from  the  soil  in  a  dry 

season? 
What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  furnishing  water  to 

plants  during  a  dry  season. 
What  kind  of  soil  holds  the  most  water  after  a 

rain? 
Which  is  better  for  raising  early  vegetables,  a 

sandy  or  clayey  soil? 
What  effect  does  drainage  of  a  wet  soil  have  on  the 

growth  of  plants? 
Of  what  is  soil  composed? 
How  may  the  test  for  acid  soil  be  made? 
How  are  earthworms  beneficial  animals? 

SEASONAL  ORDER  or  TOPICS 


March 
Soils 
Poultry-keeping 
Nesting-houses  for 
birds 
Plumage  of  birds 

April 
Shrubs  and  vines 
Shrubs  for  birds 
Fruit  garden 
Vegetable  garden 
Flower  garden 

May 
Bee-keeping 
Enemies  of  garden 
Friends  of  garden 
Bird  songs 
Flowers  from  bulbs 
Bird  fountains 

274  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

EIGHTH  GRADE 

Central  thought  for  the  grade:  the  sanitation  and  science  of 
community  life 

Autumn 
I.  Insects  that  Threaten  Health. 

1.  Fly  and  mosquito.  (See  page  77.) 
Problems  — 

What  harm  is  done  by  each  of  these  insects? 
What  are  the  remedies  to  be  used  in  each  case? 
Which  is  the  more  dangerous  insect  in  our  locality? 
Through  what  changes  does  each  pass  in  its  de- 
velopment? 

What  may  be  done  to  get  rid  of  the  mosquito? 
(See  page  77.) 

II.  Insects  in  Relation  to  Growing  Crops. 

1.  Insect  foes. 

A.  Insect  enemies  of  the  vegetable  garden. 

B.  Insect  enemies  of  the  orchard. 

C.  Insect  enemies  of  cereal  crops. 

D.  Insect  enemies  of  shade  trees. 

E.  Means  of  control;  poisons  used. 
Problems  — 

What  harm  is  done  by  each  of  these  groups  of  in- 
sects? 

What  are  the  remedies? 

How  do  the  various  remedies  used  differ  in  then 
method  of  operation? 

2.  Insects  friends. 

A.  Those  that  destroy  injurious  insects. 

a.  Parasitic  insects. 
6.  Predacious  insects. 

B.  Insects  that  pollinate  flowers. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  EIGHTH  GRADE        275 

Problems  — 

In  what  ways  is  each  group  of  insects  beneficial? 
How  do  parasitic  insects  differ  from   predacious 

in  their  method  of  destroying  insects? 
Which  is  greater  the  good  or  harm  that  insects 

do? 

In  what  ways  are  bees  beneficial,  besides  making 
honey? 

III.  Plant  Enemies  of  Crops. 

1 .  Weeds ;  of  vacant  lots,  of  roadsides,  of  crops ;  harm 
done,  identification,  control,  State  laws. 

2.  Fungous  diseases. 
Problems  — 

In  what  ways  are  weeds  harmful? 

What  are  the  most  common  weeds  found  growing 
by  roadsides  and  in  vacant  lots? 

How  may  each  of  these  weeds  be  identified? 

How  may  the  rough  pigweed  and  lamb's  quarters 
be  told  apart?  (See  pages  139.) 

In  what  ways  is  the  foxtail  harmful? 

What  weed  seeds  are  found  mixed  with  grains? 

What  characteristics  do  weeds  possess  that  make 
them  so  troublesome? 

What  adaptations  do  weeds  have  for  the  dispersal 
of  their  seeds? 

How  many  seeds  may  a  single  plant  produce?  (See 
page  139.) 

What  are  the  best  means  to  use  to  control  quack- 
grass? 

In  what  ways  may  fungi  injure  plants? 

IV.  Forest  Trees. 

1.  Study  of  trees  found  around  our  town  which  may 
grow  elsewhere  in  forests. 


276  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

Problems  — 

How  may  the  different  species  of  trees  in  the  fol- 
lowing groups  be  identified;  oaks,  ashes,  maples 
elms,  evergreens? 

How  are  the  fruits  of  trees  adapted  for  seed-dis- 
persal? 

What  references  are  found  to  trees  in  literature? 

V.     Means  of  Travel. 

1.  On  land.   (See  page  174.) 

A.  Steam  cars  —  the  steam  engine. 

B.  Street  cars  —  the  motor. 

C.  Automobile  —  the  gasoline  engine. 

D.  The  motor  cycle. 
Problems  — 

How  does  the  steam  engine  work? 

How  does  the  gasoline  engine  differ  from  the  steam 

engine? 

How  is  the  motor  constructed? 
Which  is  the  more  useful,  the  steam  engine,  the 

motor,  or  the  gasoline  engine? 

2.  On  water.   (See  page  176.) 

A.  Steamboats,  sail-boats,  submarines;  Archi- 
medes principle. 

B.  The  compass;  the  gyroscope. 
Problems  — 

How  is  the  modern  steamboat  constructed? 

How  does  one  manage  a  small  sail -boat? 

Why  is  the  gyroscope  sometimes  used  on  ships  in- 
stead of  the  compass? 

We  will  perform  some  simple  experiments  to  learn 
why  a  canoe  or  boat  floats  when  it  is  loaded. 

3.  In  air. 

A.  Airplanes;  use  of  barometer  to  tell  height. 

B.  Balloons  —  common  and  dirigible. 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  EIGHTH  GRADE        277 

Problems  — 

What  are  the  differences  between  the  airplanes 

and  the  dirigible  balloon? 

Which  offers  the  greater  possibilities  of  usefulness ? 
How  can  the  airman  tell  how  high  he  is? 
In  what  way  is  a  balloon  in  the  air  like  a  boat  on 

water? 

VI.   Means  of  Communication. 

1.  The  telephone. 

2.  The  telegraph  —  both  common  and  wireless. 
Problems  — 

How  are  the  telephone  and  telegraph  constructed  ? 
Which  is  the  more  useful? 

How  does  the  wireless  differ  from  the  ordinary 
telegraph? 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OP  TOPICS 

September                            October  November 

Fly  and  mosquito  Weeds  Means  of  travel 

Insect  foes  of  crops  Forest  trees  Means   of    communica- 

Insect  friends  of  crops  tion 

Winter 

I.  Public  Health  and  Sanitation. 

1.  Board  of  health  —  its  duties  and  ordinances. 

2.  Milk  supply  —  inspection  needed. 

3.  Protection  of  food  supply. 

4.  City  water  supply;  water  pressure. 

5.  Control  of  fly  nuisance. 

6.  Treatment  of  contagious   diseases;   quarantine, 
vaccination. 

7.  Sewage  disposal  and  removal  of  garbage;  oxida- 
tion. 


278  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

8.  Playgrounds  and  parks. 

9.  Fire  protection;  fire  engines. 

10.  Care  of  streets. 

11.  Lighting  the  streets  —  the  dynamo. 
Problems  — 

What  are  the  duties  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  our 

city? 
What  ordinances  have  they  had  passed  to  protect 

our  health? 
What  can  each  of  us  do  to  help  the  Board  of  Health 

in  its  work  to  protect  the  public  health? 
What  inspection  is  given  our  milk  supply? 
What  is  done  to  keep  our  meats,  bread,  pastry, 

fruits,  and  vegetables  clean? 
What  is  done  to  guard  our  water  supply? 
What  is  done  when  a  case  of  contagious  disease 

is  found? 

How  are  the  sewage  and  garbage  disposed  of? 
How  does  our  city  compare  with  other  cities  in  its 

parks  and  playgrounds? 
How  are  we  protected  from  fires? 
How  are  fire  engines  constructed? 
What  care  is  given  our  streets? 
What  are  the  chief  things  that  still  need  to  be  done 

in  our  city  to  further  protect  our  health? 

II.  School  hygiene. 

1.  Ventilating  and  heating. 

2.  Lighting. 

3.  Drinking  fountains. 

4.  Playgrounds. 

5.  Medical  inspection. 
Problems  — 

How  is  our  building  heated  and  ventilated? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  EIGHTH  GRADE        279 

Why  should  the  public  drinking  cup  be  abol- 
ished? 

What  is  being  done  in  other  cities  in  the  medical 
inspection  of  schools. 

What  is  being  done  in  our  city? 

What  further  could  be  done  along  this  line? 

Spring 
I.  Forestry. 

1.  Uses  of  forests. 

2.  Decrease  of  forests. 

3.  Enemies  of  forests. 

4.  Proper  methods  of  handling  our  forests. 

5.  Need  and  method  of  saving  our  forests. 

6.  State  and  national  reservations. 

7.  The  Bureau  of  Forestry  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

8.  Tree  planting  on  prairies. 

9.  Work  of  the  parts  of  a  tree  —  root,  stem,  leaf. 
10.  Structure  and  uses  of  wood. 

Problems  — 

Of  what  use  are  forests  while  standing? 

What  are  the  chief  enemies  of  forests? 

How  may  forest  fires  be  controlled? 

What  is  the  proper  way  to  care  for  forests? 

What  national  reservations  has  the  Government 
made? 

What  is  being  done  by  the  National  Bureau  of 
Forestry  to  care  for  our  national  forests?  (See 
page  97.) 

To  what  extent  may  trees  be  planted  on  the  prai- 
ries? 

What  work  is  done  by  the  roots,  stem,  and  leaves 
of  the  tree? 


280  THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE 

How  does  the  appearance  of  the  cuts  of  different 

woods  differ? 
How  does  the  appearance  of  different  cuts  of  thr 

same  wood  differ? 

II.  Bird  Friends  of  our  Trees  and  Forests. 

1.  Special  study  of  the  birds  of  the  woods,  such  as 

warblers,  thrushes,  woodpeckers,  vireos. 

2.  Economic  value  of  birds  to  the  forests  in  destroy- 

ing injurious  insects;  value  elsewhere  in  destroy- 
ing also  weed  seeds  and  rodents.  Hawks  and 
owls. 

3.  Bird  enemies;  shooting,  millinery,  cats,  English 

sparrow,  natural  enemies. 

4.  Work  of  National  Government  to  protect  birds. 

A.  Laws  protecting  migratory  birds. 

B.  Tariff  restrictions  on  feathers. 

C.  Bird  reservations. 

D.  Work  of  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey. 

5.  Adaptations  shown  in  bill,  feet,  tail,  and  wing. 

6.  Game  birds;  State  and  national  laws. 
Problems  — 

In  what  ways  are  birds  useful  to  the  forest? 

In  what  other  ways  are  birds  useful? 

How  may  we  identify  the  different  species  of  the 
following  bird  families:  warblers,  vireos,  wood- 
peckers, thrushes? 

WTiat  interesting  habits  of  these  birds  may  we 
study  this  spring? 

Which  have  done  more  harm  to  the  birds,  man  or 
the  bird's  natural  enemies? 

What  is  the  National  Government  doing  to  protect 
birds?  (See  page  68.) 

How  can  we  help  in  this  work  of  protecting  the 
birds? 


DETAILED  OUTLINE  —  EIGHTH  GRADE        281 

How  do  water  birds  differ  from  land  birds  in  the 
structure  and  use  of  their  feet,  bill,  wings,  and 
tail? 

Should  hawks  and  owls  be  protected?  (See  page 
67.) 

SEASONAL  ORDER  OF  TOPICS 

March  April  May 

Forestry  Forestry  Birds 

Birds 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

GENERAL  NATURE-STUDY 

Comstock,  A.  B.  Handbook  of  Nature-Study.  Comstock  Publishing 
Company,  Ithaca,  New  York. 

Coulter,  J.  M.  and  J.  G.,  and  Patterson,  A.  J.  Practical  Nature- 
Study.  D.  Appleton  &  Company,  New  York  City. 

Hodge,  C.  F.  Nature-Study  and  Life.  Ginn  &  Company,  Bos- 
ton. 

Holtz,  F.  L.  Nature-Study.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York 
City. 

Nature-Study  Review.  A  magazine  published  monthly,  excepting 
June,  July,  and  August.  Ithaca,  New  York. 

BIRDS 

Bailey,  F.  A.  Handbook  of  Birds  of  the  Western  United  States. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston. 

Baynes,  E.  H.  Wild  Bird  Guests.  E.  P.  Button  &  Company,  New 
York  City. 

Blanchan,  N.  How  to  Attract  Birds.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company. 
New  York  City. 

Chapman,  F.  M.  Handbook  of  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America. 
D.  Appleton  &  Company,  New  York  City. 

Forbush,  E.  H.  Useful  Birds  and  Their  Protection.  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Agriculture,  Boston. 

Hoffman,  R.  A  Guide  to  the  Birds  of  New  England  and  Eastern 
New  York.  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston. 

Reed,  C.  A.  Bird  Guide  to  the  Land  Birds.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Com- 
pany, New  York  City. 

Trafton,  G.  H.  Bird  Friends.  Houghton  Mifflin  Company, 
Boston. 

Trafton,  G.  H.  Methods  of  Attracting  Birds,  Houghton  Mifflin 
Company,  Boston. 

Bird-Lore.  A  magazine  published  bimonthly.  Harrisburg,  Penn- 
sylvania. 


286  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

INSECTS 

Comstock,  A.  B.  Ways  of  the  Six-Footed.  Ginn  &  Company,  Boston. 

Comstock,  J.  H.  How  to  Know  the  Butterflies.  D.  Appleton  &  Com- 
pany, New  York  City. 

Comstock,  J.  H.  Insect  Life.  D.  Appleton  &  Company,  New  York 
City. 

Doane,  R.  W.  Insects  and  Disease.  Henry  Holt  &  Company, 
New  York  City. 

McCook,  H.  C.  Nature's  Craftsmen.  Harper  &  Bros.,  New  York 
City. 

Miller,  M.  R.  The  Brook  Book.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company, 
New  York  City. 

O'Kane,  W.  C.  Injurious  Insects.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New 
York  City. 

Weed,  C.  M.  Farm  Friends  and  Farm  Foes.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Com- 
pany, Boston. 

PETS 

Comstock,  A.  B.  The  Pet  Book.  Comstock  Publishing  Company, 
Ithaca,  New  York. 

TREES 

Blakeslee,  A.  F.,  and  Jarvis,  C.  D.  Trees  in  Winter.  The  Mac- 
millan Company,  New  York  City. 

Keeler,  H.  L.  Our  Native  Trees.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New 
York  City. 

Roth,  F.  First  Book  of  Forestry.  Ginn  &  Company,  Boston. 

Schauffler,  R.  H.  Arbor  Day.  Moffat,  Yard  &  Company,  New  York 
City. 

Stone,  G.  L.,  and  Fickett,  M.  G.  Trees  in  Prose  and  Poetry.  Ginn 
&  Company,  Boston. 

FLOWERS 

Dana,  W.  S.  How  to  Know  the  Wild  Flowers.    Charles  Scribner's 

Sons,  New  York  City. 
Keeler,  H.  L.  Our  Garden  Flowers.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New 

York  City. 
Reed,  C.  A.    Wild  Flowers  East  of  the  Rockies.   Doubleday,  Page 

&  Company,  New  York  City. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  287 

FLOWEBLESS  PLANTS 

Atkinson,  G.  F.   Mushrooms  Edible  and  Poisonous.   Henry  Holt  & 

Company,  New  York  City. 
Parsons,  F.  T.  How  to  Know  the  Ferns.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 

New  York  City. 

GARDENING 

Bailey,  L.  H.  Manual  of  Gardening.  The  Macmillan  Company, 
New  York  City. 

Dorner,  H.  B.  Window  Gardening.  Bobbs-Merrill  Company, 
Indianapolis,  Indiana. 

Maynard,  S.  T.  The  Small  Country  Place.  J.  P.  Lippincott  Com- 
pany. Philadelphia. 

WEEDS 

Georgia,  A.  E.  Manual  of  Weeds.  The  Macmillan  Company, 
New  York  City. 

Weed,  C.  M.  Farm  Friends  and  Farm  Foes.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Com- 
pany, Boston. 

HYGIENE 

Ayres,  Williams,  and  Wood.  Healthful  Schools.  Houghton  Mifflin 

Company,  Boston. 
Coleman,  W.  M.  The  People's  Health.  The  Macmillan  Company, 

New  York  City. 
Dresslar,  F.  B.  School  Hygiene,  The  Macmillan  Company,  New 

York  City. 
Fisher,  I.,  and  Fisk,  E.  L.   How  to  Live.    Funk  &  Wagnalls,  New 

York  City. 
Rapeer,  L.  W.    Educational  Hygiene.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 

New  York  City. 
Terman,  L.  M.   The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child.  Houghton  Mifflin 

Company,  Boston. 

PHYSICAL  NATURE-STUDY 

Coulter,  J.  M.  and  J.  G.,  and  Patterson,  A.  J.  Practical  Nature- 

.  Study.  D.  Appleton  &  Company,  New  York  City. 
Cummings,  H.  H.    Nature  Study  for  Primary  Grades.    American 
Book  Company,  New  York  City. 


288  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Cummings,  H.  H.    Nature-Study  for  Lower  Grammar  Grades. 

American  Book  Company,  New  York  City. 
Cummings,  H.  H.  Nature-Study  for  Higher  Grammar  Grades. 

American  Book  Company,  New  York  City. 
Rowell,  P.  E.  Science  for  the  Fifth  Grade.  Marine  Journal  Press, 

San  Rafael,  California. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Accidents,  256. 

Aims  of  science  teaching,  10. 

Air: 

composition  of,  159; 

fresh,  173,  215,  224,  232; 

pressure  of,  159. 

Apple  blossoms,  lesson  plan  on,  103. 
Application  of  lesson,  40. 
Applications  of  science,  6. 
Aquarium  studies,  230,  941,  253. 
Arbor  day,  93. 

Arithmetic  and  bird  study,  52. 
Arithmetic  and  insect  study,  72. 
Art  and  science,  23. 
Attracting  birds: 

nesting-boxes,  218,  227,  235,  260; 

feeding,  22,  240; 

fountains,  235; 

shrubs,  272. 
Audubon  Association,  50,  55; 

lesson  plan  on,  66. 

Bacteria,  256. 
Baking  powders,  165. 
Bathing,  208,  215,  224,  244. 
Bee-keeping,  271. 
Bicycle,  253. 
Birds: 

of  the  air,  247; 

of  the  fields,  260;      - 

of  the  marshes,  260; 

of  shade  trees,  235; 

migration,  260; 

nesting  habits,  247; 

protection,  280; 

songs,  272. 
Bird  study: 

motivation  of,  49; 

materials  for,  50. 
Bluebird,  lesson  plan  on,  64. 
Blue  prints,  91. 
Boat.  176. 
Breathing,  159,  244. 
Bulbs,  126,  206,  213,  221,  228. 


Calendars: 

bird,  52,  211,  218,  226; 

flower,  100,  235,  246; 

garden,  126,  262; 

insect,  72. 
Camera,  178. 
Candle,  170. 

Canning  fruits,  lesson  plan  on,  122. 
Cat,  lesson  plan  on,  85. 
Caterpillars,  207. 
Chemistry  of  kitchen,  183. 
Child  and  curriculum,  26. 
Christmas  tree,  lesson  plan  on,  95. 
Clock,  179. 

Clothing,  208,  216,  224,  244,  255. 
Clubs,  bird,  55. 
Coasting,  233. 
Collections: 

of  leaves,  90; 

of  insects,  71 ; 

of  weeds,  135. 
Compass,  177. 
Condensation,  172. 
Corn,  lesson  plan  on,  120. 
Correlation,  22,  61,  72,  93,  137. 
Cosmos,  lesson  plan  on,  120. 
Cow,  lesson  plan  on,  86. 

Development  of  lesson  plan,  39. 

Diseases,  256. 

Dog,  lesson  plans  on,  83-85. 

Domesticated  animals,  223. 

Dramatization,  55. 

Drinks,  216,  243. 

Earthworm,  230. 
Eggshell  garden,  130. 
Evaporation,  172. 
Evening  entertainments,  245. 
Experiments  with  plants,  129. 
Eye,  166. 

Fats,  test  for,  165. 
Ferns,  239. 


292 


INDEX 


Field  trips,  18,  60. 
Fish,  207,  230. 
Flexner,  Abraham,  8. 
Flowers,  cultivated,  205,  210,  212, 
217,  219,  225; 

from  bulbs,  235; 

hardy  annuals,  228; 

tender  annuals,  237; 

perennials,  246,  263; 

vines,  240. 

Flowers,  wild,  205,  210,  212,  217, 
219,  225; 

colored  spring,  234; 

white  spring,  246; 

of  shady  places,  229; 

of  sunny  places,  239. 
Fly,  79,  240,  274. 

Foods,  164,  208,  224,  232,  243,  254. 
Forest  fires,  lesson  plan  on,  97. 
Forestry,  279. 
Freezing,  172. 
Fruits,  213,  220. 

Galls,  lesson  plan  on,  75. 
Games: 

bird,  53; 

flower,  100; 

tree,  92. 
Gardening,  248,  269,  270; 

home  gardens,  113,  123,  210,  217, 

226,  237. 

Geography  and  science,  23. 
Germination  experiments,  181. 
Goldenrod,  lesson  plan  on,  102. 
Grasshopper,  lesson  plan  on,  74. 
Gyroscope,  178. 

Habits  of  health,  145. 

Hawks  and  owls,  lesson  plan  on,  67. 

Heat: 

sources  of,  162; 

effects  of,  163. 

Heating  the  home,  162,  255,  265. 
Hour-glass,  179. 
House  plants,  126,  238,  265. 
Humidity  of  air,  161. 
Hygiene: 

essentials  for  teaching,  144; 

motivation  of,  148; 

school,  278; 

textbooks  in,  154. 


Insects : 

activities,  75,  230; 

of  the  garden,  271; 

parasitic,  274; 

pests  of  household,  265; 

pollinators  of  flowers,  274; 

social,  230; 

water,  77,  240. 
Insect  study: 

motivation  of,  69; 

materials  for,  70. 
Interest  and  learning,  32. 
Interests,  dormant,  33. 
Ivy,  poison,  lesson  plan  on,  138. 

Lady  beetle,  lesson  plan  on,  79. 

Leaf,  work  of,  134,  262. 

Leaves,  lesson  plan  on,  95. 

Lever,  180. 

Lighting  the  home,  170, 223, 233, 266. 

Magnet,  174. 
Maple  tree,  41,  96. 
Marigold,  lesson  plan  on,  120. 
Materials: 

living,  17; 

preserved,  20; 

for  flower  study,  99; 

for  insect  study,  70; 

for  tree  study,  89. 
Meters,  171,  174. 
Moon,  188,  245. 
Mosquito,  77,  220,  274. 
Motivation,  26; 

of  bird  study,  49; 

of  gardening,  116; 

of  hygiene,  148; 

of  insect  study,  69; 

of  tree  study,  88. 
Movies,  174. 
Mushrooms,  107,  229. 
Musical  instruments,  268. 

Nasturtium,  lesson  plan  on,  119. 
National  Government,  protecting: 

birds,  67; 

forests,  97. 
Needs,  present  and  future,  28. 

Observation,  44. 
Organization  of  outline,  193. 


INDEX 


293 


Pendulum,  231. 

Pets,  82,  208,  215. 

Phases  of  science,  3. 

Physiology,  temperance,  156. 

Piano,  181. 

Pictures,  20,  50. 

Plan,  lesson,  41-43. 

Plane,  inclined,  180. 

Planting  seeds,  lesson  plan  on,  125. . 

Poisonous  plants,  241. 

Poultry-keeping,  271. 

Problems,  30,  36,  37. 

Propagation  of  house  plants,  128. 

Protein,  test  for,  165. 

Public  health,  277. 

Pumping  water,  173. 

Roots,  work  of,  132.  * 

Screw,  181. 

Seasonal  changes,  207,  211,  214,  218, 

222. 

Seed  dispersal,  lesson  plans  on,  105-07. 
Seeds,  206,  207,  213. 
Shrubs,  260,  263. 
Skating,  245,  257. 
Sky  studies,  187,  257. 
Slide,  231. 
Soils,  273. 
Spiders,  89,  240. 
Squirrel,  230. 
Starch,  test  for,  164. 
Stars,  257. 
Stem,  work  of,  133. 
Storing  vegetables,  122. 
Submarine,  178. 
Sun,  187,  234. 
Swing,  231. 


Teeter,  241. 

Telegraph,  277. 

Telephone,  277. 

Thermometer,  164,  223. 

Toad,  218. 

Tomato,  lesson  plan  on,  119. 

Travel,  means  of,  276. 

Trees,  205,  209,  212,  216,  220,  225; 

evergreens,  208,  215,  257; 

fruit,  251,  259; 

nut,  229,  234; 

shade,  239,  246; 

motivation  of  tree  study,  88; 

materials  for  tree  study,  89; 

collections  for  tree  study,  89. 
Trolley,  174. 

Vegetables,  213; 

root,  229; 

salad,  248; 

vine  crops,  250. 
Ventilation,  161,  255,  265. 
Vines,  104,  251,  263. 
Violin,  181. 

Water: 

hard  and  soft,  171; 

home  supply,  184,  266. 
Weather  observations,  185. 
Weather  maps,  186. 
Weather  studies,  209,  216,  224. 
Weeds,  135,  251,  275. 
Window-boxes,  128. 
Winter  birds,  lesson  plan  on,  65. 
Wood,  lesson  plan  on,  96. 
Wren's  house,  lesson  plan  on,  65. 

Yeast,  165. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  LOS  ANGELES 

THE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


1949 
JUN  21  1955 


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ALIFORNIA, 

"..*L!F. 


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cop.  1 


